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A 
 

 is a model that evolves in time or space subject to 
   

The simplest example is the one-dimensional simple 
 The process starts in
state  at time t = 0. Independently, at each time instance, the process takes a jump Zn:
Prob { Zn = -1} = q, Prob { Zn = +1} = p and Prob { Zn = 0 } = 1 - p - q.
The state of the process at time n is
Xn = X0 + Z1 + Z2 + « + Zn.
Assume for convenience that X0 = 0. Since E[ Zn] = p - q and VAR [Zn] = p + q - ( p - q)2,
then E[ Xn ] = n (p - q) and Var [ Xn ] = n { p + q - ( p - q )2 }.

A stochastic process, such as the simple random walk, has the 



 or  



 if the conditional distribution of Xn only depends on the most recent information:
Prob { Xn = k | Xn-1 = a, Xn-2 = b, « } = Prob { Xn = k | Xn-1 = a }

We can think of random walks as representing the position of a particle on an infinite line.
The position of the particle can be 
 
 or can be restricted by the presence of
 
. A barrier is 
 if the process stops once the particle reaches the barrier, or


  if the particle remains at the barrier until a jump in the appropriate direction
causes it to move away. Problems of interest are
What is the expected time to absorption at a barrier, if one exists ?
What is the distribution of time spent at a reflecting barrier, if one exists ?
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Example [ Reservoir Systems] Here Zn is the inflow of water into a reservoir on day n. Once
a particular water threshold a is reached, an amount of water b is released. The system is a
random walk on the range [0, a] with a reflecting barrier at a.

Example [ Company Cash Flow] X0 is the initial capital of the company. During trading
period i, the company receives revenue ri and incurs costs ci, so the change in liquidity is
zi = ri - ci.
The company will continue to trade profitably as long as its accumulated capital is non zero.
The underlying process is defined on the positive real line with an absorbing barrier at zero.

Example [Building Society Funds]. This is similar to the last example, except that the
company pays out an amount b if the accumulated funds on a particular day exceeds an
amount a. Building societies are designed to provide a steady flow of funds into the housing
market and relatively simple models give insight into how the market can be regulated.

Example [Market Share] we are given the original market P Final States
shares pi of three companies and the  
   (Initial) 1 2 3
P = [ pi, j ] 1 p1, 1 p1, 2 p1, 3
where pi, j = Prob { that a customer of company i transfers 2 p2, 1 p2, 2 p2, 3
to j over a single trading period} 3 p3, 1 p3, 2 p3, 3
Stochastic processes of this type always reach a 
 

which is an absorbing barrier and is independent of the     
. The rate of
convergence to the steady state depends on the values in the transition matrix.
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In the simplest queue, customers arrive at an average rate to a queue with infinite capacity
and one server. Assuming the Markov property holds, by taking very small time slices t,
Prob { 1 arrival in the interval [t, t + t] } = ÷ t,
Prob { 0 arrivals in ³ [t, t + t] } = 1 - ÷ t,
Prob { More than 1 arrival in [t, t + t] } = 0.
These are the classical conditions for the Poisson distribution, so
Pn ( t ) = Prob { n arrivals in the interval [0, t] } = ( ÷t )n / n ! exp ( - ÷ t).

and Prob {Interarrival time
t} = Prob {First arrival
t} = 1-Prob {No arrival in [ 0, t]}
= 1 - P0 (t) = 1 - exp ( - ÷ t )
so the interarrival time has an exponential distribution with parameter ÷ .

By the same token, if on average  customers are served per unit time, then the service
times have an exponential distribution with parameter  . Since both the arrival and service
distributions, this single server queue is designated M | M | 1.

The traffic intensity  = ÷ /  is an important characteristic of queuing networks.

Unless  < 1, the queue is unstable (i.e.) the expected queue size is infinite.

In queuing models, the 

 consists of those in the queue plus those, if any, being served.
The main items of interest in queuing models are the means and variances of the
!  
for customers and the Queue or System |"

ù 
#$ is useful in analysing queues. It states that if the queue is in equilibrium
( Pn (t) is independent of t ) , the rates at which the states of the system are being
incremented must equal the rates at which they are being decremented.
ù 
#$

'et pn = equilibrium probability (proportion of time) that there are n people in the
system. The state ( number of people in the system) transition diagram is

ý ý ý ý ý ý ý ý

0 1 2 3 i-1 i i+1

State Arrival Rate = 'eaving Rate => Relationships

0 ý p1 p0 p1 = p0
1 ý p2 + p0 ( + ý )p1 p2 =
2 p0
2 ý p3 + p1 ( + ý )p2 p3 =
3 p0

and so on. As p0 + p1 + p2 + « = 1 = p0 { 1 +
+
2 +
3 + « } = p0 / ( 1 -
) , we get

10
pi = ( 1 -
)
i , for i = 0, 1, 2, ...



It follows immediately that, provided
< 1,

E [ Number in the System 's] =  n pn =
/ ( 1 -
) ...

E [ Number in the Queue 'q] =
2 / ( 1 -
)
E [ Waiting time in the System Ws] = 1 / ý ( 1 -
)

E [ Waiting time in the Queue Wq] =
/ý ( 1 -
)
0 1


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Note that p0 = Prob { no customers in the sytem }

so 1 - p0 = Prob { server is busy }

If the system size is bounded by n, great care needs to be taken in interpreting the behaviour
of customers that arrive and find the queue full. If the excess customers are forced to return
at a later time, the arrival rate is no longer Poisson. If the excess customers are lost, the
transition diagram is finite and
pn = ( 1 -
)
i / ( 1 -
n+1), for i = 0, 1, 2, «, n.

In banks and other systems with k servers, it is common for customers to form a single
queue, and when a server is available to go the relevant service point. If all the servers have
a common service rate ý, the queue corresponds to the single server queue M | M | 1, with a
service rate of k ý A similar situation arises if the customers take a ticket on entering the
bank.

Queues arise in many applications, such as

The arrival of aircraft in an airport
The arrival of ships in a port
Requests for data within computer memories (e.g.) client-server systems.

Motivated by commercial applications, networks of queues have been studied in great detail.
Due to the classification of queuing problems , it has been possible to build sophisticated
directories that cover a wide range of practical problems. Equally, queuing theory is the
central concept in simulation models. We will briefly review some of the main ideas
involved.
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The simulation model



 in a series of  
. The Start
 
of a model is known as its  
 The


F
of an

 marks the start of a new stage and causes Process Stop
the model to change state. Pending ?
T
It is only necessary to examine the system every time Find the Process
an event occurs. The 





  is with the Earliest
controlled by a 
. activation Time

The primary 
&

 in a model is a 

, Update the Clock
which represents an
&
 and the sequence of to the Time of the
 
 it experiences throughout its life in the model. Event
An object comes into being at 
 
 
and
becomes active at   
 
. Determine Type
of Process
The primary 

&
  are the

 

which are shared by competing processes and Remove Process
lead to 
 '

 in the model. from Pending
'ist
The statistics gathered in simulation models fall
into two main categories:   
 are the Execute Process



or  between service-end Routine

   
 for customers while



 

 are  

via numerical integration.