Module 3

Module Three: Leading and
Influencing
“To expect every manager to be a leader is
futile. There are, in a developed society,
thousands, if not millions, of managers – and
leadership is always the rare exception and
confined to a few individuals.”
Peter Drucker
“Business needs to relearn its limits” and

business schools should revise their stated
mission of educating leaders for the world at
large. “Harvard Business School needs only to
promise to educate students in the process and
management of business.”
Philip Delves Broughton
What is Leadership
Developing ideas and vision
Making hard Living by

decisions values that
about human Leadership support
and other those ideas
resources and that
Influencing others to vision
embrace them in their own
behaviors
Chapter 8: PowerPoint 8.2
The Nature of Leadership
• Leadership
– A social (interpersonal) influence between two
or more persons who depend on each other
to attain certain mutual goals in a group
situation.
The Nature of Leadership
• Leader versus manager
– Leadership and management are not
interchangeable.
– Leadership is the accepted use of
organizationally-derived and/or personal
power to influence and motivate subordinates.
– Management is process-oriented (planning,
organizing, directing, and controlling)
supervisory behavior.
Leaders vs. Managers
Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-6

Educatio, Inc. Publishing as
The Leadership
Process
Leader
The
Leadership
Process
Context Followers
Consequences
(e.g., Suspicion,
Trust, Dislike,
Affection)
FIGURE 11–1
11–1
The Leadership Process
(cont’d)
• Leadership is a function of an interaction
between the leader, the follower, and the
situation.
– L = ƒ [(Person)(Follower)(Situation)]
• Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory
A theory that describes the different kinds of
relationships that may develop between a leader
and a follower and what the leader and the
follower give to and receive back from the
relationship.
Leadership Process

Leader-Member Exchange Model

The Leader-Follower Power
Relationship
Leader Follower Compliance Group Effectiveness
Influence/Power Tactic • Alienation & resistance • Follower satisfaction
(e.g., Use of Rationality) • Calculative compliance • Follower motivation
• Identification • Follower performance
• Internalization
—commitment
Effective leadership is more likely to occur when the

leader’s influence flows out of expert and/or
referent power.
FIGURE 11–2
11–2
5
Early Approaches to Leadership

• The trait approach
seeks to identify
personal characteristics
that effective leaders
possess.
• The behavior approach
focuses on the
behaviors that effective
leaders engage in.
Traits Model of Leadership
Intelligence
Traits of
Maturity
most
Integrity and
successful
breadth
leaders
Achievement drive

The Trait Approach to
Leadership
• Great man theory of leadership
– The belief that some people are born to be
leaders and others are not.
• Leadership trait research
– Physiological, demographic,
personality, intellective,
task-related, and social
characteristics of
effective leaders.
– “The right stuff”?
Leadership Trait Research
(cont’d)
• Core characteristics of leaders (Locke)
– Drive—high level of effort and desire for achievement
– Leadership motivation—intense desire to lead others
– Honesty and integrity—commitment to the truth
– Self-confidence—assurance in self, ideas, and ability
– Cognitive ability—conceptually skilled and possessing
good judgment
– Knowledge of business—high degree of
understanding about the company, industry, and
technical matters
– Other traits—charisma, creativity/originality, and
flexibility/adaptiveness
The Trait Approach to
Leadership (cont’d)
• Other leader traits
– Sex and gender role
• Males (or persons with masculine
characteristics) emerge as leaders
more frequently than females.
• Men are more likely to be task-oriented
and to adopt autocratic/directive leadership styles.
• Women tend to be more interpersonal

and relationship-oriented, and to
use a democratic/participative
leadership style.
38
In fact, research shows:

• Male and female leaders have similar task-
and people-oriented leadership.
• Men do not engage in more initiating
structure and women do not engage in more
consideration.
• Women do tend to have more democratic
leadership styles, whereas men tend to be
more autocratic.
• Women rated less favorably than equivalent
male leaders due to stereotyping.
Inadequacies of the Traits Model
of Leadership
 No consistent patterns between traits and

leader effectiveness
 Physical characteristics are more likely

related to situational factors
 Leadership is more complex than the trait

approach assumes

Behavioral Leadership Styles
• Theory X and Theory Y leaders
– Theory X leaders
• Assume workers dislike work and are incapable of self-
direction and self-control.
• Use a highly controlling leadership style.
– Theory Y leaders
• Assume workers enjoy work
and are capable of self-direction
and self-control.
• Use an involvement-oriented
approach to leadership.
Leadership Behaviors
Autocratic-Delegation Continuum

Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s
Leadership Continuum
Boss-Centered Leadership Subordinate-Centered Leadership
Use of Authority
by the Manager Area of Freedom
for Subordinates
Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager

makes “sells” presents presents presents defines permits
decision and decision. ideas and tentative problem, gets limits, subordinates
announces it. invites decision suggestions, asks group to function
Autocratic– questions. subject to makes decision. to make within limits Free-Rein–
leader is change. decision. defined by followers are
dominant superior. free to choose,
in making leader becomes
Participation
decisions. passive.
Low High
Source: Modified from R. Tannenbaum and W. H. Schmidt. May–June 1971.

How to choose a leadership pattern. Harvard Business Review, 167. FIGURE 11–3
11–3
Directive and Permissive
Leadership Styles
• Leadership Behavior and the Uses of Power
Low Amount of Employee Participation in Decision Making High
High
Directive 1 Directive 3
Autocrat Democrat
Leader Decision-Making Power: High Leader Decision-Making Power: Low
Leader Directing Power: High Leader Directing Power: High
Amount of
Leader
Direction
Permissive 2 Permissive 4
Autocrat Democrat
Leader Decision-Making Power: High Leader Decision-Making Power: Low
Leader Directing Power: Low Leader Directing Power: Low
Low
Source: Modified from J. P. Muczyk and B. C. Reimann. 1987. The case

for directive leadership. Academy of Management Executive, 1:304. FIGURE 11–4
11–4
Behavioral Model of Leadership
Focuses on what leaders actually do and how they do it
 Consideration
 Extent to which the leader has relationships with
subordinates that are characterized by mutual
trust, two-way communication, respect for
employees’ ideas, and empathy for their feelings
 Initiating structure
 Extent to which a leader defines and prescribes
the roles of subordinates in order to set and
accomplish goals in their areas of responsibility
Leadership Behavior Dimensions

Behavioral Model of Leadership
(cont’d)
• The University of Michigan studies
identified the behavioral
characteristics of effective leaders:
– Job-centered behaviors— supervisory
activities such as planning, scheduling,
and coordinating work activities.
– Employee member-centered behaviors—
consideration and support for
organizational members.
Copyright © 2002 by 11–25
South-Western
When Is Consideration Effective?
Followers desire participative

leadership
Followers feel
minimal status Team members
Routine tasks
differences must learn
prevent job
should exist something new
satisfaction
between them
and the leader
Involvement in decision
making affects employees’
job performance

When Is Initiating Structure Effective?
Output pressure is imposed

by someone other than the
leader
More than 12 Employees rely

employees report Task satisfies on leader for
to the leader employees direction and
information
Employees are
predisposed toward
directive leadership

The Managerial Grid

High
9 1,9 9,9
Accommodating Sound
(Yield and Comply) (Contribute and Commit)
I support results that establish I support team action in a way
8
and reinforce harmony. I that invites involvement and
Blake generate enthusiasm by commitment. I explore all facts
focusing on positive and and alternative views to reach a
and pleasing aspects of work. shared understanding of the
7
Mouton’s best solution.
Concern for People

Managerial
® 6
5,5
Grid Status Quo (Balance and Compromise)
5 I endorse results that are popular but caution
against taking unnecessary risk. I test my opinions
with others involved to assure ongoing acceptability.
3 9,1
1,1 Controlling
Indifferent (Evade and Elude) (Direct and Dominate)
I distance myself from taking active I expect results and take control
2 responsibility for results to avoid by clearly stating a course of
getting entangled in problems. If action. I enforce rules that
forced, I take a passive or supportive sustain high results and do not
position. permit deviation.
1
Low
Source: Adapted from R. McKee
and B. Carlson. 1999. The Power 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
to Change, p.16. Copyright © Low High
1999 by Grid International, Inc. Concern for Production
Reproduced by permission of the
owners. FIGURE 11–5
11–5
Fiedler’s Contingency (LPC)
Theory
• The theory that leader effectiveness is determined by
both the personal characteristics of leaders and by
the situation in which leaders find themselves.
• Sheds light on two important issues:
– Why, in a particular situation, some leaders will be
effective and other leaders with equally good credentials
will be ineffective.
– Why a particular leader may be effective in one situation
but not in another.
Theory
• According to Fiedler, a leader’s style is an enduring
personal characteristic. Fiedler created the least
preferred coworker (LPC) scale to measure it.
• Leaders who are relationship-oriented want to be
liked by and to get along well with their subordinates.
– Also called High LPC leaders because they tend to
describe their LPC in relatively positive terms.
• Leaders who are task-oriented want their
subordinates to perform at a high level and accomplish
all of their assigned tasks.
– Also called Low LPC leaders because they tend to
describe their LPC in relatively negative terms.
Theory
• Contingency theory of leadership (cont’d)
– Least preferred co-worker (LPC) score
• High LPC scores = relationship-oriented leaders.
• Low LPC scores = task-oriented leaders.
– Situational favorableness
• Favorable situations allow leaders more control/
influence over the group process.
– Leader member relations, task structure, leader position
power
Theory
• According to Fiedler, three characteristics
determine how favorable situations are for
leading.
• Leader-Member Relations: The relationship
between a leader and his or her followers.
• Situation is favorable for leading when relations are
good.
Theory
• Task Structure: The extent to which the work
to be performed by a group is clearly defined.
• Situation is favorable for leading when structure is
high.
• Position Power: The amount of formal
authority a leader has.
• Situation is favorable for leading when power is high.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model of
Leader-Situation Matches
Good
Performance
Poor
Favorable Moderate Unfavorable
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Leader-Member
Relations Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
Task Structure High High Low Low High High Low Low
Leader
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Position Power
Task Motivated Relationship Motivated
Source: Adapted from F. E. Fiedler and M. M. Chemers. 1974.

Leadership and effective management. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. FIGURE 11–6
11–6
LPC Contingency Theory

16
Matching Style and Situation

• High LPC leaders are most
effective in situations that are
moderately favorable for
leading.
– Octants IV, V, VI, and VII
• Low LPC leaders are most
effective in situations that are
very favorable or very
unfavorable for leading.
– Octants I, II, III, and VIII
Situational (Contingency)
Approaches to Leadership
(cont’d)
• Path-Goal theory
– Leadership is path- and goal-oriented.
• Effective leaders provide organizational members
with a path to a valued goal.
• Different leadership styles are effective as a
function of the task confronting the group.
(cont’d)
Path-Goal theory
• Has roots in Expectancy Theory
• Effective leaders influence employee satisfaction by
strengthening the performance to outcome
expectancy and valences of those outcomes
• Effective leaders provide information and support to
strengthen the effort to performance expectancy
• Generally applies to dyadic relations – later
extended to apply to work units
(cont’d)
Path-Goal theory – 4 types of
behaviors
• Directive behavior lets subordinates know what tasks
need to be performed and how they should be
performed.
• Supportive behavior lets subordinates know that
their leader cares about their well-being and is looking
out for them.
(cont’d)
Path-Goal theory – 4 types of
behaviors
• Participative behavior enables subordinates to be
involved in making decisions that affect them.
• Achievement-oriented behavior pushes
subordinates to do their best. Includes setting difficult
goals for followers, expecting high performance, and
expressing confidence.
(cont’d)
Contingencies of path-goal theory:
Employee contingencies – skill and

experiences and locus of control
Environmental contingencies – task
structure and team dynamics
The Path-Goal Leadership
Model
Leader Behavior
Supportive
Directive
Participative
Achievement-Oriented Subordinate Outcomes
Combine Motivation
to Influence Satisfaction
Performance
Situational Forces
Work Environment
Subordinate Characteristics
FIGURE 11–7
11–7
Path Goal Theory

Hersey Blanchard Model
The style of leadership should be matched to
the level of readiness of the followers
Task behavior
 The extent to which a leader uses one way communication, spells
out duties, and tells followers where, when, and how to do it
Relationship behavior
 The extent to which a leader uses two-way communication,
listens, encourages, involves followers in decision making, and
gives emotional support
Follower readiness
 Ability to set high but attainable task-related goals and a
willingness to accept responsibility for reaching them
Use of Styles in Situational
Leadership Model
 Delegating Style  Telling Style
Use when follower Use when follower
readiness is high readiness is low
 Participating Style  Selling Style

Use when follower Use when follower
readiness is readiness is
moderately high moderately low

The Situation Leadership® Model (Figure 8.2)
(Part I)
FOLLOWER READINESS
High Moderate Low
R4 R3 R2 R1
Able and Able but Unable but Unable and

willing or unwilling or willing or unwilling or
confident insecure confident insecure
Follower Leader
Directed Directed
Source: P. Hersey, et al. Management of Organizational Behavior: Leading Human
Resources, 8th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), p. 182. Copyright ©
2001, Center for Leadership Studies, Escondido, CA. Used with permission.
The Situation Leadership® Model (Figure 8.2)
(Part II)
(high) LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR
S3 S2
Share ideas Explain decisions
and facilitate and provide
Relationship Behavior
(Supportive Behavior)
in decision opportunity for

making High Rel High Task clarification
Low Task High Rel
Low Rel High Task
Low Task S4 S1 Low Rel
Turn over Provide
responsibility specific
for decisions instructions
and imple- and closely
mentation supervise
®
(low)
performance
Task Behavior
(low) Chapter (Directive
8: PowerPoint 8.13
Behavior)
(high)
Situational Leadership Theory

Implications of Situational Leadership
Model
 Easily understood model with clear recommendations
 Must constantly monitor employees’ readiness levels
Style should be changed to fit changing situations

Limitations of Situational Leadership
Model
 Difficulty in addressing different readiness levels in

a team situation
 Follower readiness is the only contingency variable

used
 Some leaders may not be able to easily adapt their

styles to fit the situation
 Not strongly supported by scientific research

Learning Objectives for Leading
Effectively: Contemporary Developments
 State the characteristics of transactional

leadership.
 Describe the features of charismatic

leadership.
 Discuss the attributes of authentic

leadership.
 Explain the nature of transformational

leadership.
Transactional Leadership:
Interrelated Components
Emphasizes Provides
passive contingent
management Transactional rewards
by exception Leadership
Exhibits
active management
by exception
Practices of Effective Transactional
Leaders
 They ask: “What needs to be done?”
 They ask: “What is right for the

organization?
 They develop action plans.
 They take responsibility for decisions.
 They take responsibility for communicating.

Model of Charismatic Leadership
Reflects Extraordina
strengt ry personal
h qualities
Charismati
Exhibits c Emphasiz
desired leadership es shared
behavio vision and
rs values
Promotes
shared
identity

Implications for Leaders
 Gains power because their followers identify

with them
 Rare in business
 Communication competency is critical
 Socialized charismatic leader—possesses an

egalitarian and empowering personality
 Personalized charismatic leader—possesses a

dominant Machiavellian, and self-centered
personality
Model of Authentic Leadership
Raises Stimulates
optimis follower
m identificati
on
Authenti
Shows Create
c
positive s
Leaders
emotion hope
hip
s
Reflects
trust
Source: Based on Avolio, B.J., Gardner, W.L., Walumbwa, F.O., Luthans, F., and May, D.R. Unlocking the
mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors. Leadership
Quarterly, 2004, 15, 801-823. Chapter 9: PowerPoint 9.6
 Influence followers’ attitudes and behaviors

through identification, hope, trust, positive
emotions, and optimism.
 Knows oneself—strengths and limitations
 Ethics and open communication are central
 Focus on being a “servant” to followers and other

stakeholders

Model of Transformational Leadership
Shows Provides
individualize inspirational
d motivation
consideration
Transformation
al
leadership
Fosters Creates
idealized intellectual
influence stimulation

Inspirational Motivation
 Displays great enthusiasm and optimism
 Gets followers involved in and committed to a vision
 Inspires others by what they say and do

Intellectual Stimulation
 Urges followers to question assumptions,

explore new methods and ideas, and take
new approaches to old situations
 Actively seeks out new ideas and creative

solutions from followers
 Doesn’t criticize followers’ ideas just because

they differ from those of the leader
Intellectual Stimulation
(Continued)
 Relatively high tolerance for mistakes made

by conscientious followers
 Focuses on the “what” in problems rather

than the “who” to blame
 Willing to abandon systems and practices

that are no longer useful
 Views risk taking as necessary and desirable

for long-term development and success
Idealized Influence
 Often considers the needs and interests

of their followers before their own
 May willingly sacrifice personal gain
 Can be trusted
 Demonstrate high ethical and moral

standards

Idealized Influence
(Continued)
 Can be very direct and challenging to some

followers and empathetic and supportive of
others
 Minimizes the use of power for personal

gain
 Uses all power sources to move individuals

and teams toward a vision and its goals

Individualized Consideration
May act as coach, mentor, teacher, facilitator, confidant,

and counselor
Embraces and rewards individual differences to enhance
creativity and innovation
Encourages open dialogue with followers
Empowers followers to make decisions
Monitors followers to determine if they need additional

support or direction
 Needed more than ever at all levels
 Encourages reasonable risk taking
 Knows when to reject traditional ways of doing things
 Vital to handling difficult and complex organizational

threats, opportunities, and weaknesses
Substitutes and
Neutralizers
• Leadership Substitute: Something that
acts in place of a formal leader and makes
leadership unnecessary (functional).
– Intrinsic motivation of subordinates
– Skill level of subordinates and nature of work
Substitutes and
Neutralizers
• Leadership Neutralizer: Something that
prevents a leader from having any
influence and negates a leader’s efforts
(dysfunctional).
– Lack of ability to reward/punish
– Physical distance between leader and
workers
Substitutes for Leadership
 Individual characteristics
 Knowledge
 Commitment
 Experience
 Job characteristics
• Highly routine
• Highly interesting
 Organization characteristics
• Work norms
• Cohesion
• Technology
Substitutes for and
Neutralizers of Leader Behavior
Leader Behavior Influenced
Supportive Instrumental
Substitute or Neutralizer Leadership Leadership
A. Subordinate Characteristics:
1. Experience, ability, training Substitute
2. “Professional” orientation Substitute Substitute
3. Indifference toward reward offered by Neutralizer Neutralizer
organization
B. Task Characteristics:
1. Structured, routine, unambiguous task Substitute
2. Feedback provided by task Substitute
3. Intrinsically satisfying task Substitute
Source: Leadership in organizations by G. A. Yuki. Copyright © 1981. Reprinted

by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. TABLE 11–1a
11–1a
Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leader
Behavior (cont’d)
Leader Behavior Influenced

Supportive Instrumental
Substitute or Neutralizer Leadership Leadership
C. Organization Characteristics:
1. Cohesive work group Substitute Substitute
2. Low position power (leader lacks control Neutralizer Neutralizer
over organizational rewards)
3. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, areas Substitute
of responsibility)
4. Inflexibility (rigid, unyielding rules and Neutralizer
procedures)
5. Leader located apart from subordinates Neutralizer Neutralizer
with only limited communication possible
Source: Leadership in organizations by G. A. Yuki. Copyright © 1981. Reprinted

by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. TABLE 11–1b
11–1b

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Module Three: Leading and

“Business needs to relearn its limits” and

Developing ideas and vision

Making hard Living by

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-6

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-9

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-10

Effective leadership is more likely to occur when the

Early Approaches to Leadership

Chapter 8: PowerPoint 8.6

• Women tend to be more interpersonal

In fact, research shows:

 No consistent patterns between traits and

 Physical characteristics are more likely

 Leadership is more complex than the trait

Chapter 8: PowerPoint 8.7

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-20

Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager

Source: Modified from R. Tannenbaum and W. H. Schmidt. May–June 1971.

Source: Modified from J. P. Muczyk and B. C. Reimann. 1987. The case

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-24

Followers desire participative

Chapter 8: PowerPoint 8.9

Output pressure is imposed

More than 12 Employees rely

Chapter 8: PowerPoint 8.10

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-28

Concern for People

Task Motivated Relationship Motivated

Source: Adapted from F. E. Fiedler and M. M. Chemers. 1974.

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-37

Matching Style and Situation

Employee contingencies – skill and

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-45

 Participating Style  Selling Style

Chapter 8: PowerPoint 8.12

Able and Able but Unable but Unable and

in decision opportunity for

Copyright© 2011 Pearson 13-50

 Easily understood model with clear recommendations

 Must constantly monitor employees’ readiness levels

Style should be changed to fit changing situations

Chapter 8: PowerPoint 8.14

 Difficulty in addressing different readiness levels in

 Follower readiness is the only contingency variable

 Some leaders may not be able to easily adapt their

 Not strongly supported by scientific research

Chapter 8: PowerPoint 8.15

 State the characteristics of transactional

 Describe the features of charismatic

 Discuss the attributes of authentic

 Explain the nature of transformational

 They ask: “What needs to be done?”

 They ask: “What is right for the

 They develop action plans.

 They take responsibility for decisions.

 They take responsibility for communicating.

Chapter 9: PowerPoint 9.4

 Gains power because their followers identify

 Communication competency is critical

 Socialized charismatic leader—possesses an

 Personalized charismatic leader—possesses a

 Influence followers’ attitudes and behaviors