Fundamental Moral Theology

FUNDAMENTAL MORAL
THEOLGY
By. Rev DR. David K. Mbugua OFMCap

INTRODUCTION
The course ; Description:
 This course explores fundamental concepts, values, principle and patterns of

thinking which have formed the tradition of Roman Catholic moral theology,
and acts as foundation of understanding of moral issues in our world today.
 The course will study critically: Nature and function of catholic moral theology,
historical evolution of moral Theology, Scripture as source in moral theology;
Human person as moral being; Moral reasoning and Human acts; Conscience
its and formation as subjective criteria of moral judgment; Natural law and
moral norms as objective criteria for moral judgment; Sin, virtue and
fundamental option.
 Since moral theology is fundamentally a discipline of practical reasoning: these

concepts will be addressed in the context of concrete moral cases and issues
as well as at the abstract and theoretical level.
INTRODUCTION
Aim of the Course:
 The aim of this course is to help the student construct a theological

framework for moral decision-making in the Roman Catholic
tradition, to help them employ this framework to address particular
moral cases and issues of importance in our society today and finally
to help the student bring this construction into dialogue with other
forms of moral reasoning that influence moral debate in the Church
and society.
INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives:
 By the end of this course we expect that the student will have an
understanding of the salient (important) features of Roman Catholic
moral theology.
 The student will be able to demonstrate an ability to articulate a

thoughtful stance in response to pastorally-relevant moral case.
 The student will be able recognize and assess the strengths and
weaknesses of various modes of moral reasoning.
INTRODUCTION
Outline Part one
 Nature and Function and context of morality

 Moral theology a science of morality
 Historical Evolution of Moral Theology
 Biblical foundation of Moral Theology.
 Human person of moral theology (Christian Anthropology)
 Concept and Nature of Human act
 Conscience and Its Formation
INTRODUCTION
Teaching Methodology
Class lectures and discussions with opportunities for students to ask
questions whenever they are in doubt. The class will be presented through
use of PowerPoint.
Evaluation
The student evaluation will be based on written CAT, a research paper
and Final oral or written exam.
Class Attendance
Class attendance is required. Students planning to be absent should
personally contact the instructor prior to the absence, if possible.
Instruction Materials
Student should take their notes in class lecturers notes are available on
cost.
INTRODUCTION
Reading Materials
Documents:
Catechism of the Catholic Church. Part III. ##1691-2082
Veritatis splendor.
Books
Bohr David, Catholic Moral Tradition, Idiana, Our Sunday Visitor Pub, 1990
Curran, C. E., and R. McCormick., eds. Readings in Moral Theology. 14 vols. New
York: Paulist Press, 1980-2002.
Griesez, G. The Way of the Lord Jesus. 3 vols. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press,
1983-1997.
Gula, R. Reason Informed by Faith: Foundations of Christian Morality. New York:
Paulist Press, 1989.
INTRODUCTION
Reading Materials
Gula, R. The Good Life: Where Morality and Spirituality Converge. New York: Paulist
Press, 1999.
Haring Bernard, 3 vol. Free and Faithful in Christ, Law of Christ
John Paul II. Veritatis Splendor. Encyclical Letter. 1993.
Kennedy, T. Doers of the Word: Moral Theology for the Third Millennium. Liguori:
Triumph Books, 1996.
Lucie-S, Alexander. Foundations of Moral Theology, Nairobi 2006.
Mahoney, John. The Making of Moral Theology, Oxford 1990
May, William E. An Introduction to Moral Theology, Huntington 1994.
O’Connell, T. E. Making Disciples: A Handbook for Christian Moral Formation. New
York: Crossroad Publishing, 1998.
Peschke, C. Henry. Christian Ethics, Bangalore 1981, vol. 1 and 2
Pinckaers, S. The Sources of Christian Ethics. Translated by M. T. Noble.
Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1995.
Pontifical Biblical Commission, The Bible and Morality 2009
Chapter one Nature and Function of
moral theology
The course is called fundamental moral theology
The three Concept are important to understand the course: fundamental,
moral and theology
 It is fundamental: It is moral and it is theology
Fundamental = serving as, or being an essential part of, a foundation or basis;

basic; In this sense fundamental moral theology:
 is basis of moral thinking and judgment.

It acts as framework of moral thinking.
prolegomena to special moral theology prolegomena (plural of

prolegomenon) An especially critical or discursive introduction prefaced to a
literary work; preliminary remark; figurative: serving as an introduction to
something.
Fundamental moral theology—explains the why behind the judgments of
moral theology
It is a Theology
The term theology came from the Greek word ‘theologia‘ which
means ‘discussions about God‘.
Even before Socrates, Greek philosophers there were attempt to

explain the origins of the universe. The big question being: What is the
begging of all that we see? This has been perennial question of rational
being. Different answer were given.
But it was Plato who first used the word ‘theology’. Aristotle further
expounded on its meaning, citing that there are three explanations to
everything: mathematical, the physical and the theological, with
theological as considered to be the most honor. Theology is divided into
Contemplative and moral
moral theology
Contemplative
Contemplative theology was formerly called dogmatic theology today is called simply systematic.
Contemplative systematic theologians try to work out a single, coherent view of reality in the light of
faith.
Systematic theology must serve as a foundation for any set of moral standards that pleases God
and fulfills human nature. Establishing such a set is difficult today because of the emergence of the
postmodernism which denies the existence of absolute truth, absolute moral standards, and
universal ethics. Advances in science, medicine, and technology increase the difficulty of creating a
system of Christian ethics.
The inevitable connection between ethics and systematic theology requires that one have a good
foundation in systematic theology for his ethics. A separation between the two fields occurred
largely as a result of the Enlightenment which caused theology to be viewed as a science. Since the
study of a science must be separate from a religious perspective, theology underwent a process of
becoming a profession and the responsibility for educating theologians became the responsibility of
the college rather than the church.
This solidified the barrier between theology and ethics. Who God is must be the root for standards
of right and wrong. God’s glory must be the goal of ethics. Love for God must be the basis for one’s
love for and behavior toward his fellow man. Other doctrines besides the doctrine of God, especially
moral theology
Moral theology deals with morality; lets take some time with
morality the subject matter of moral theology. The questions that
emerges:
What is morality? What are the different approaches

to morality? How does morality differ from aesthetics,
etiquette, law, religion or custom? Where does
morality come from? Why should you be moral?
moral theology
What is morality?
Moralityderives from the Latin moralis meaning customs or manners.

Commonly we speak of people being ethical or moral to mean good or right
and unethical and immoral to mean wrong or bad
Morality claims our lives. It makes claims upon each of us that are stronger
than the claims of law and takes priority over self-interest. As human beings
living in the world, we have basic duties and obligations. There are certain
things we must do and certain things we must not do. In other words, there
is an ethical dimension of human existence.
As human beings, we experience life in a world of good and evil and
understand certain kinds of actions in terms of right and wrong. The very
structure of human existence dictates that we must make choices. Ethics
helps us use our freedom responsibly and understand who we are. And,
ethics gives direction in our struggle to answer the fundamental questions
moral theology
similarity and differences of morality with other non moral

uses of key term
 What is philosophy and ethics’ relationship to it? Philosophy –

philia/sophia -means ‘love’ or ‘friend’ of wisdom. Philosophers
try to be a friend of wisdom by asking questions and studying
why something is the case.
 Ethics seeks wisdom by asking about right and wrong, good

and bad
 Philosophical ethics is the study of what makes something

moral or ethical, good or right, and unethical or immoral bad or
wrong
moral theology
similarity and differences of morality with other non moral uses of key term
 Aesthetics. Ethics like aesthetics is a part of philosophy concerned with values.
Ethics differs from aesthetics in that it is concerned with moral value although
moral value and aesthetic value connect and overlap.
 Non Moral uses of key terms. Good, bad, right and wrong are often used in a
non-moral sense, e.g., good meal, bad tooth, etc. These uses often refer to
function. Aristotle argued that morality is tied to the function of a human being.
This should not be confused with any idea that meals or teeth are directly linked
to the moral.
 Manners or etiquette. Manners and etiquette are forms of socially acceptable and
unacceptable behavior. For example, swearing or use of foul language is in most
contexts considered unacceptable. However there is no necessary connection
between this and immorality. Of course manners and morals overlap but care is
required to distinguish them when there is no obvious connection.
moral theology
Only Human are morality resposible
Who is morally responsible? Should only human beings be held morally

responsible? Are all animals non-moral? Only human being who is moral
being
Man is the only moral being (homo moralis).
Charles Darwin wrote that man as a moral creature is able to reflect
on his past deeds and their motivations, to approve of some and to
condemn others.
No other living creature on the earth and perhaps in the whole
universe is endowed with mind and reason, with consciousness and
self-consciousness, with personality, free will and conscience.
moral theology
To whom or what does morality apply?
Human person as moral Being is Characterized by

Ability to differentiate good from evil
The unavoidable fact is that we are continuously making judgments
of value, that is, knowing values and living our lives on the basis of
these values.
We distinguish between good and bad collage, good and bad
policies, honest and dishonest politicians, good and bad actions. We
function in society on the basis of these values.
Most people agree in condemning certain action like genocide,

terrorism, world poverty, political corruption, child abuse, etc.
moral theology
Human being as moral agent Make value judgment
We have little hesitation lauding or praising certain action as values:

Democracy, freedom, accountability, transparency, and condemning the
absence of these values in a tyranny or dictatorship.
We are constantly approving and disapproving some of aspects of our
own behavior
We always exhort others with statement like; be a good students and
do what you are told,
we differ with our friends for letting us down or losing their temper or
thinking too much of themselves.
For the most part we pass these judgments easily, freely, without any
special effort and in many cases our evaluations are correct.
moral theology
We make mistakes
It is also evident that sometimes we make mistakes. What we thought

was a good friend can turn out to be a dishonest friend. The politician
we voted for turns out to be self-serving and corrupt. The good college
we chose can turns out to be a disaster.
But the salient point is that we can recognize our mistakes; we can
correct our mistaken judgments; we can readjust our evaluations in the
light of further experience and new data.
What is this extraordinary ability we have to know good from evil, to

evaluate people, actions, policies and things, from the point of view of
good, better, best or bad, worse, worst?
moral theology
Morality may be applied to four areas proper to

human person
 Religion. Morality determined by relation between human
being and supernatural being.
 Nature. Morality determined by relation between human
being and nature.
 Individuality. Morality determined by relation the individual
has to him or herself.
 Society. Morality determined by relation between human
being and society.
Most moral systems involve all four of these areas with one being
primary.
moral theology
 Approaches to the study of morality.
 The scientific or descriptive:
 This approach emphasizes the observation of human

behavior and the positing of conclusions based on those
observations. Psychologists, for example, have claimed that
human beings are basically selfish based on observations of
conduct. This approach is descriptive in that it is ‘value-free’
making no judgments about the rightness or wrongness of
the behavior.
moral theology
 Normative ethics (”how the world should be”)
 Systematic investigation of moral standards (norms and

values) with the purpose of clarifying how they are to be
understood, justified, interpreted and applied on moral
issues.
 What actions and decisions are right or wrong from an

ethical point of view? What makes an action or a decision
morally right or wrong or good or bad?  How should we
organise basic social institutions (political, legal economic),
and how should such institutions distribute benefits and
burdens (rights, duties, opportunities and resources) among
affected parties?
moral theology
 Metaethics:
 A metaethicist is committed to the analysis of the language, concepts

reasons and foundational structure of ethical systems. What is good?
What is the criterial of judgement of goodness?
 Metaethics = The study of ethical terms, statements and judgements. •

Analysis of the language, concepts and methods of resoning in ethics. It
addresses the meaning of ethical terms such as right, duty, obligation,
justification, morality, responsibility. •Moral epistemology (how is moral
knowledge possible?) •Investigates whether morality is subjective or
objective, relative or nonrelative, and whether it has a rational or an
emotional basis.
moral theology
 Applied ethics =
 Applied ethics is a part of normative ethics that focus on particular
fields
 Moral theological examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular
issues in private and public life that are matters of moral judgment”
 Bioethics
 Animal ethics
 Environmental ethics
 Intergenerational ethics
 Climate ethics
 Business ethics
 Computer ethics
moral theology
 Where does morality come from?
Values are Framework of making moral decision
 Value systems provide a framework for judging the moral

acceptability of any options.
 We often approach Moral decisions by determining whether
the choices we face are compatible with our moral values. Our
value systems—our Ethical standards
moral theology
 Where does morality come from?
 Morality can be considered as having a subjective or

objective origin. As objective there are three possibilities
for the origin of value:
 Values are given by a supernatural being.
 Values are part of the fabric of nature.
 Values are part of the ‘furniture’ of the world,
independently of human beings.
These possible explanations of the origin of values are
expressed in the ‘supernatural theory’, the theory of ‘natural
law’ and ‘objectivism’.
moral theology
 As subjective, the origin of value is related to human beings.
Without human beings, subjectivist theorists argue, there
would be no value.
They serves more than one human purpose.
Survival and flourishing of a group or an individual within the group:
Control and Stability
Creates expectations,
Transmits the identity of the group to new members
Helps Individual to become a good person
 Where do values come from? Values might be thought of then as
originating in a complex relation among the three variables: an
interaction between conscious human beings, things (variously
material, emotional, mental) and a specific context.
Chapter one Nature and Function of moral
theology
Moral theories

What is an ethical theory?
The aim of ethical theories is, among other things, to
present and defend systematic answers to the two following
questions:
1. What moral standards (norms and values) should we
take into account when assessing actions, decisions
and institutions?
2. How should such moral standards be justified?
 This theories could be classified in terms of legalism,
situationalism, relativism, hedonism, asceticism, utilitarianism, and
rationalism.
theology
Moral theories
 Deontological Model This is a “Stick to the letter of the
law” model. This model views Christian moral life primarily
in terms of duty (deon), law or obligation.
The philosopher Immanuel Kant was its greatest

exponent. This is the basis of popular Christian piety, which
makes the Ten Commandments the basis of Christian life.
Popular manuals of moral theology used this model,
stressing law and conscience. It is most associated with
pre-Vatican II Moral thinking.
theology
Moral theories
 Teleological Model This is a “What’s best in the end for most
people” model. It views Christian moral life in terms of the goal or end
(telos) to be achieved- namely, eternal union with God. Something is
good if it leads to the achievement of the goal; evil if it prevents one
from achieving it.
However, in the complexity of human, historical existence, one must

distinguish the ultimate goal from intermediate and subordinate goals.
Thomas Aquinas is a classic exponent of this theory. It comes from
Aristotle’s world-view and uses the Natural Law theory. Much of the
thinking used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church would be
influenced by this model.
theology
 Consequentialism
assesses the rightness or wrongness of actions in terms of the value of their
consequences. The most popular version is act-consequentialism, which states that,
of all the actions open to the agent, the right one is that which produces the most
good
several types of consequentialism
1. Egoistic and particularistic consequentialism: One only takes into
consideration how the consequences of an act will affect oneself or a
given group – e.g. ones family, fellow citizens/compatriots, class or
race. Moral rightness depends on the consequences for an individual
agent or a limited group.
2. Universal consequentialism: One takes into account how the

consequences of an act will affect all the parties involved. Moral
rightness depends on the consequences for all affected people or
sentient beings.
theology
Consequentialism
 The English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) proposed

an ethical system based on utilitarianism —the view that moral
conduct is based on that which will bring about the greatest good
for the greatest number.
 The utilitarian characterizes behavior as ethical when it does the

greatest good and causes the least harm. This is not the same
thing as freedom of action. Mill’s ethics require that we treat one
another justly and honestly, because it serves the greater good for
people to be true to their word and just in their dealings with
others.
theology
 Utilitarianism
For the utilitarian, the only thing that has value are states of affairs.
Utilitarians deny the deontologist’s claim that some actions have
inherent moral value – as required, forbidden, etc.
For the utilitarian, if an act has value as right or wrong, then it can
only be derivatively, because of the good or bad states of affairs that it
produces
The fundamental principle of utilitarianism is the principle of utility:
The morally right action is the one that produces the best overall
consequences with regard to the utility or welfare of all the affected
parties.
Jeremy Bentham’s slogan: The right act or policy is the one that
causes ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’ – that is,
maximize the total utility or welfare of the majority of all the affected
parties.
theology
 Situational Ethics
 Protestant theologian Joseph Fletcher (1966, 1967) argued that ethical
decision making should be guided by love for others rather than by rigid
moral rules, and that sexual decision making should be based on the
context of the situation that the person faces. For this reason, his view is
termed situational ethics.
 According to Fletcher, a Roman Catholic woman will have been taught

that abortion is the taking of a human life. Her situation, however—her
love for her existing family and her recognition of her limited resources
for providing for another child—might influence her to decide in favor of
an abortion. Fletcher argues that rules for conduct should be flexible.
The situationist is prepared in any concrete case to suspend, ignore, or
violate any principle if by doing so he can effect more good than by
following it.
theology
 Ethical Relativism
 Ethical relativism assumes that diverse values are basic to human existence.
Ethical relativists reject the idea that there is a single correct moral view about
subjects as diverse as wearing revealing clothing, masturbation, premarital sex,
oral sex, anal sex, contraception, and abortion. One person may believe that
premarital sex is unacceptable under any circumstances, whereas another may
hold that “being in love” makes it acceptable. Still another person may believe
that sex is morally permissible without an emotional commitment.
 The ethical relativist believes that there is no objective way of justifying one set
of moral values over another. In this view, the essence of human morality is to
derive one’s own principles and apply them according to one’s own
conscience. Opponents of ethical relativism argue that allowing people free
rein to determine what is right or wrong may bring about social chaos and
decay. One form of ethical relativism is cultural relativism . From this
perspective, what is right or wrong must be understood in terms of the cultural
beliefs that affect sexual decision making. In some cultures, premarital sex is
tolerated or even encouraged, whereas in others, it is considered immoral.
World view of Morality
Context of morality: Pre-classic

GOD THE MORALITY OF HONOR BASIS = THE WILL

It is Socially Oriented
Myth The Focal Point is Will Power and Behavior
External Locus of morality but internal locus of
World
control
People
In these kind of morality there are no real alternatives
– one either does what he/she should or doesn’t
1 The Gods
Morality and justice are particular and unequal
2 Myth Religions Feelings motivate one to do the right thing
3 World Chaos People
Feelings of shame or disappointment are the normal
responses to moral transgression
Group membership is defined and structured
according to the social roles of the individuals
Pre-classic A guiding vision mythical relationship reality can only be

GOD
explain through myth

Conception of morality is Its Socially Oriented approach
(social centric), The Focal Point is Will Power and Behavior,
Myth External Locus of morality but internal locus of control, In
these kind of morality there are no real alternatives – one either
World does what he/she should or doesn’t, Morality and justice are
People
particular and unequal, Feelings motivate one to do the right
thing, Feelings of shame or disappointment are the normal
responses to moral transgression,
1 The Gods
The characteristic moral reasoning is Mythical
2 Myth Religions
3 World Chaos People The corresponding pastorate is construed in terms of practices
and roles are shaped within the community, Group membership
is defined and structured according to the social roles of the
individuals
The fundamental question is what is socially acceptable
Sin is that which community rejects or outlaws
THE CLASSIC WORLD VIEW (View of the world, nature and
God) MORALITY OF DELIBERATION
God
Man realizes that he lives in a created, ordered world – by God

Cosmos
Man struggles to discovers the universal truth and lives in

World harmony with the truth according to the nature of each thing
People
(natural law oriented). Abstract, universal, eternal, necessary
and fixed are adjective associated with this world view.
The contents of conscience (values) are received from outside
God
2 Cosmos (Order) the self -from nature itself
3 World People Logos Man is seen an a Rational Animal with Reason being a POWER
(capacity)
Natural Order - speculative reason

Moral Order - practical reason
THE CLASSIC WORLD VIEW (View of the world,
nature and God)
God
AXIOLOGICAL THE MORALITY OF DELIBERATION GROUNDED IN REASON
Cosmos
World
Individuum and Individualist

People
Focal Point - the decision to act – the act
Internal locus of morality but an external locus of situational
control
There are alternatives - it is possible to choose between
God
2 Cosmos (Order) them
3 World People Logos Reason controls the feelings
Morality and Justice = egalitarian
Common response to transgression = Guilt and Anger
Group membership = shared similitude
MODERN WORLD VIEW
God THE RATIONAL PERSON:

Science
Man dwells in a world ordered
World
People physically according to the laws of

nature, but nature is subordinated to
1God
2 Science (under control of), the power of human
3 World
4People Reason to control nature reason. Reasoning becomes empirical
science - has as its purpose the control or
improvement of nature
MODERN WORLD VIEW
THE SOCIAL - MORAL ORDER IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED.

God

The individual is formed by the forces of both biology and society
Science Behavior is motivated by need and desire By understanding and
manipulating these natural processes and forces we can create a better (a
World
perfect), society.
People Utilitarian –utopian: The human person is fundamentally: a social
animal
1God
MORALITY IS A UTOPIAN PROJECT
2 Science
3 World
 The utilitarian - Created by Society We cannot choose the components that
4People make up ourselves. These are imposed upon us from outside. We must
learn to control our impulses in order to be able to live in harmony with the
rules governing our society. Primary Concepts = Social Order, cooperation,
honor, social learning, group loyalty, citizenship Reason = Reveals whether
a law ought to be respected, and pragmatically evaluates the social
consequences of obedience or disobedience
POST MODERN WORLD VIEW
God must have created the world but has no interest he is (Out
God There) World (Connected to People but little to do with them)
People (Self Centered)
World
People No social morality: Everyone must construct his own personal

moral system, valid only for himself/herself. But a universal
1God
2 World moral system, valid for everyone, is impossibility.
4People
The only order that exists in the world is the order which I
impose upon it through use of my reasoning. Both the physical
and moral realms are fundamentally dominated by chaos.
We should not trust human reasoning -it is always
egocentrically motivated PRAGMATIST

POST MODERN WORLD VIEW
POST-MODERN MAN: THE PRAGMATIST
God
I decide what is of value and I make norms for myself, but not for others.
Primary Concept = That which works for me -which enables me to maintain my
World
self-esteem or integrity.
Easily separates public from private morality according to the situation
People Purpose of Reason = I use it to help me discover what makes me feel good about
myself - But we should not confide too much in it
1God Focal Point = I (egoistic)
2 World Internal locus of morality and internal locus of control
4People
Zeros in on feelings - positive feelings determine what is correct
Morality and justice are relative to the situation and to the person - that which
is good today might be evil tomorrow
There are unlimited alternatives from among which to choose, but no clear
criteria for choosing any one of them. “Don’t upset anybody”
Correct response to moral transgression =therapy
MORAL THEOLOGY
DEFINITIONS
 Pre-Vatican II (before 1962): Msgr. Giuseppe Graneris,
 moral theology is that part of theology which deals with human actions
and studies the rules of human conduct in their relationship to the
principles of revelation.
 Christian ethics does not eliminate, but embraces and perfects, natural
ethics. For this reason, moral theologians include in their treatises the
norms of the natural law. The field of moral theology embraces natural
and supernatural ethics. It is the function of moral theology to dictate
norms for all human activities in order that they may conform to the
principles of reason and Christian revelation. Msgr. Giuseppe Graneris, "Moral Theology,"
in Dictionary of Moral Theology, ed. Roberti and Palazzini, (London: Burns & Oates, 1962): 1219.
MORAL THEOLOGY
DEFINITIONS
 Post-Vatican II (after 1965): Richard M. Gula, S.S
 Moral theology, or Christian ethics, is concerned with God's

revelation of himself in Christ and through the Spirit as an
invitation calling for our response.
 In short, moral theology is interested in the implications of
Christian faith for the sorts of persons we ought to be (the
ethics of character or agency ethics) and the sorts of actions we
ought to perform ( the ethics of doing). Both concerns--
character (or agency) and action--need to be considered in any
complete project of moral theology. Richard M. Gula, S.S., What Are They Saying
About Moral Norms?, (New York: Paulist Press, 1982): 9.
MORAL THEOLOGY
DEFINITIONS
 Post-Vatican II (after 1965): Bernard Häring
 "Moral theology, as I understand it, is not concerned

first with decision-making or with discrete acts.
 Its basic task and purpose is to gain the right vision, to

assess the main perspectives, and to present those
truths and values which should bear upon decisions to
be made before God." Bernard Häring, C.Ss.R., Free and Faithful in Christ: Moral Theology for Priests and
Laity, Volume I: General Moral Theology, (Middlegreen, Slough: St. Paul Publications, 1978): 6.
MORAL THEOLOGY
DEFINITIONS
 Post-Vatican II (after 1965): H. Richard Niebuhr
 He conceived of Christian ethics to be the effort of the Christian community to criticize

its moral action by means of reflection. This critical inquiry is not confined to the
process of moral self-judgment in the community, to the process of evaluation of its life
in the light of certain expectations and norms. Rather it is a critical inquiry in a more
generous philosophical sense, an inquiry into the nature of its moral life, the principles
of life (principles in terms of those things that are most universally true and proper
about its being). Thus a major part of ethics is a phenomenological analysis of man's
moral existence. ... Ethics is not the narrative account of the moral action of members of
the Christian community. It has the task of disclosing the basic pattern, the morphology
of the life and action of the Christian community in the moral sphere--the way of
thinking and acting that is true to its character as a community of me before God." James
M. Gustafson, "Introduction" to H. Richard Niebuhr's The Responsible Self: An Essay in Christian Moral
Philosophy, (New York: Harper & Row, 1963): 8.
MORAL THEOLOGY
DEFINITIONS
 Post-Vatican II (after 1965):
 Veritatis Splendor says it’s a reflection concerned with

morality, of the good and evil acts, and is theology insofar
as the end and beginning are found in God, who in giving
himself to man, offers him the opportunity of divine life.
Moral theology studies man’s movement toward good and
evil in the light of the influence of God who shows him
where goodness is.(goodness is not our own making it from
God) The focus is above all is morality the rational ordering
of the human act to the good in its truth and the voluntary
pursuit of that good by reason the moral facts of acts.
MORAL THEOLOGY
DEFINITIONS
 Post-Vatican II (after 1965): W. E. May
 A systematic cognitive effort to discover who we are and

what we are to do if we are to be fully the beings we are
meant to be, (Human) when carried out exclusively by
the use of human intelligence it is called moral science or
philosophical ethics. When this effort is systematically
undertaken by those who human intelligence is informed
by Christian faith it is moral theology.
MORAL THEOLOGY
DEFINITIONS
 Post-Vatican II (after 1965): St Thomas
 Another way to view moral theology that sound convincing is found in the teaching of
Saint Thomas. The main focus of Saint Thomas is God. Theology is a study of God,
what we know of him on the basis of what he has revealed to us. Theology is based on
revelation, in which we perceive the mystery God has revealed about himself, which
we try to penetrate in faith. We see a basic concordance of revelation with reason.
Since God is the object of study, what distinguishes moral theology from other types
of theology, is the mode of the being of God. Saint Thomas describes different ways of
the being of God.
 The first is his omnipresence, keeping everything in being, as their Creator. He is
present in a different manner in grace in the human person. He is present finally in a
different way in Jesus and in the way he is in the sacraments. Therefore attention in
moral theology is focused not on morality itself but on God who manifests himself in
sanctified human activity. We look at God through the prism of a human person, how
God is transforming the person, and how the image of God is visible in the person
transformed by grace. Moral theology tries to depict the deifying presence of God
which manifests itself in moral acts. The overall title of the moral section of the
Catechism of Catholic Church, "Life in the Spirit," suggests this perspective. To give
the picture of what grace does to the human being, we must look at Christ.
Historical evolution of moral
theology
Philosophical Roots
The power and richness of Christian tradition has been its ability to
integrate knowledge from faith sources, such as Scripture, with knowledge
gained with secular reason, such as Greek philosophy.
Christian tradition holds the two sources in tension by refusing to allow one
to eclipse or destroy the other.
History of Christian Ethics
SOCIOHISTORICAL ERA 0F THE GREEKS
Western intellectual history always begins with the ancient
Greeks.
This is not to say that no one had any deep thoughts prior to the
ancient Greeks, or that the philosophies of ancient India and China,
Africa (and elsewhere) were in any way inferior. What it means is
that History record Greek Philosophy as having made a big break
through in world of academia
We might also ask, why the Greeks in the first place? Why not the
Phoenicians, or the Carthaginians, or the Persians, or the
Etruscans? There are a variety of possible reasons.
Possible Reasons for The Greeks intellectual pursuit
One has to do with the ability to read and write, which in turn has to do with the
alphabet. It is when ideas get recorded that they enter intellectual history. Buddhism
and Africans , for example, although a very sophisticated philosophy, was an oral
tradition for hundreds of years
Another thing that made the Greeks a bit more likely to start the intellectual ball
rolling was the fact that they got into overseas trading early. Their land and climate
was okay for agriculture, but not great, so the idea of trading for what you can’t grow
or make yourself came naturally. Plus, Greece is practically all coastline and islands,
so seafaring came equally naturally. What sea trading gives you is contact with a
great variety of civilizations, including their religions and philosophies and sciences.
This gets people to thinking: If this one says x, and that one says y, and the third
one says z, what then is the truth? Traders are usually skeptics.
The Basics of Greek philosophy
The ancient Greek philosophers gave us the basic categories of
philosophy, beginning with metaphysics. Metaphysics is the part of
philosophy that asks questions such as “What is the world made of?"
and "What is the ultimate substance of all reality?”
In fact, the ancient Greeks were among the first to suggest that there
is a “true” reality (noumenon) under the “apparent” reality
(phenomenon), an “unseen real” beneath the “unreal seen.” The
question is, what is this true reality? Is it matter and energy, i.e.
something physical? This is called materialism. Or something more
spiritual or mental, such as ideas or ideals? This is called idealism.
Materialism and idealism constitute the two extreme answers. Later,
we will explore some other possibilities.
The Basics of Greek philosophy
A second aspect of philosophy is epistemology. Epistemology is

the philosophy of knowledge: How do we know what is true or false,
what is real or not? Can we know anything for certain, or is it
ultimately hopeless?
Again, the Greeks outlined two opposing approaches to the problem

of knowledge. One is called empiricism, which says that all
knowledge comes through the senses. The other is called
rationalism, which says that knowledge is a matter of reason,
thought. There are other answers in epistemology as well. In fact,
 The third aspect of philosophy that we will be concerned with is ethics.

Ethics is the philosophical understanding of good and bad, right and
wrong. It is often called morality, and most consider the two words
synonymous.
 Even according to Greeks ethics is the most difficult of the three
aspects of philosophy. Even then they were able to differentiate the
extremes of hedonism and cynicism.
 Hedonism says that good and bad come down to what I like and
what I don’t like, what gives me pleasure and what gives me pain.
 Cynicism says that world is essentially evil, and we can only work at
distancing ourselves from it and moving towards the ultimate good,
which is God. Some of the thoughts that has influenced moral
theology include
Sophists as agents of change and as inquirers into the nature of

change.
 The Sophists GOOD was a matter of personal decision

and law. It was a convention, like green means GO or
red means STOP. We decide what is good. The good is
not a natural quality but an artifact of personal choice
and culture.
Philosophical Roots
 Socrates (BC 469-399)
 Socrates believed that by the use of reason man could arrive at
a set of ethical principles that would reconcile self-interest with
the common good and would apply to all men at all times.”
There is a universal moral law.
 Socrates asked what Good, Love, Piety and Justice are
constituted by. He concluded that earthly justice is only a
shadow of true justice which is the idea of justice in its pure
form.
 Socrates, in demanding rational grounds for ethical judgments,
brought attention to the problem of tracing the logical
relationships between values and facts—creating ethical
philosophy.
Philosophical Roots
 Plato (BC 427-347)
 Plato suggested that there is an ideal world where the
true forms of Love, Justice, Piety and Good come from.
 Any instance of love in our world is an imperfect copy
of the true form of Love. Ethical concepts can never be
adequately defined in terms of observable fact alone.
 Plato’s goal in ethical philosophy is to lead the way
toward a vision of the Good.
Philosophical Roots
 Aristotle (BC 384-322)
 Unlike Plato, Aristotle found the standards of value in the basic needs,
tendencies and capacities of man — fostering the naturalist tradition.
 Aristotle took biology and observable nature to be the model of his
ethical system unlike Plato who modeled his system after mathematics.
“Aristotle identifies the supreme good with ‘happiness,’ which he defines
as the exercise of natural human faculties in accordance with virtue.”
Virtue is defined as the golden mean between extremes of emotion or
tendencies to action:
It is important to note that free will and responsibility were not subjects of
great concern for the Greek moralists. Only later, with the rise of Christian
thought did free will and responsibility take a major role in ethical
discussion.
Philosophical Roots
 Stoicism:
 Fourth century BC to the third century AD: Stoicism: The

concept of duty acquired a central place in ethics, as
conformity to moral rules which they identified with laws of
human nature. Roman Jurisprudence was largely based on a
Stoic theory of natural law.
 Patristic Period
Ecclesiastical structure of 1st century
 The primitive Church had basically no ecclesiastical structure.
 There were no formally defined doctrines, no distinction between
clergy and laity, no church buildings.
 The first followers of Jesus gathered in the houses of friends to
celebrate the Lord's Supper.
 Concerns over safeguarding the orthodoxy of the faith arose, which
led to the development of the concept of apostolic succession. With
all the apostles now dead it was considered important for Church
officials to be able to trace an unbroken link between themselves
and the apostles. Thus, in the immediate post-apostolic period the
bishop emerged as the elder with the primary responsibility of
proclaiming and defending the authentic message of Jesus in the
local Church.
 Patristic Period
 Interest of Church fathers
 In moral questions, as in all other questions, the Fathers of the
Church had one interest to faithfully transmit the Christian heritage.
There interest was not to present complete systems of doctrine.
Therefore, they also do not draw a distinction between dogma and
morality.
 For them Christianity is a mystery to be lived, the mystery of the
imitation of Jesus Christ. Their teaching was contained in form of
letters from bishops, homilies, commentaries on scripture, various
tracts on particular. virtues or obligations, and the defense of
Christian morality in comparison to the Jewish, pagan, and heretical
approaches
 The subjects included life in the world, martyrdom, reaction to
persecution, relationship with non-Christians, peace and violence,
sexual morality, and participating in the institutions of society.
Scriptural Commentaries
As the Fathers saw it, the bishops' chief task was to proclaim and explain the
Scriptures. This was done through preaching and catechesis, particularly in a liturgical
context. The scriptural commentaries of bishops, whether spoken or written, were the
primary source of their moral teaching. Here they exposed the moral teaching of
the Scriptures, beginning with its principal texts, and used their wealth of experience to
apply it to the lives of their Christian audience.
St. John Chrysostom, for example (344-407), delivered ninety homilies on St. Matthew,
eighty-eight on St. John, two hundred and fifty on St. Paul's letters, and sermons on
nearly sixty psalms and several other books of both Old and New Testaments.
St. John Chrysostom merits consideration as the moralist among the Fathers because
of the richness of his teaching and the pastoral orientation of his oratorical genius.
Before him, St. Basil (330-79) had composed a work entitled Moralia, a collection of
extracts chiefly from the Gospels and Epistles, arranged in chapters with a brief
introduction. Scriptural commentaries in their varying forms-homilies, occasional
sermons, catechesis, or written works-made up the first and indeed the principal
reference for patristic moral teaching, being closest to the inspired source
Didache
The Didaché may be looked upon as the first handbook of morals

which has come down to us
This first handbook of moral theology begins with the first general principle of
ethics. All righteousness is summed up in the general precept to avoid evil
and do good. The doing of good consists of the observance of the two great
commandments of love for our God and for our neighbor.
The golden rule is added to the statement of the general first principles of
morality. "There are two ways," we read, "one of life and one of death and there
is much difference between the two ways. Now the way of life is this: First thou
shalt love God that made thee; secondly, thy neighbor as thyself; and all things
whatsoever thou wouldest should not happen to thee, neither do thou to another."
The rest of the first chapter is occupied with a development of the precept of love
for our neighbor, expressed for the most part in the language of the Sermon on the
 Justin (martyred about 161)
 Being familiar with both Judaism and Plato, Justin integrates these
views with Christianity. He presents Christ as both Word and Law
terms particularly meaningful to Platonist philosophers and Jewish
believers. He proposes that this Word, who is Christ, is actually
present and working the hearts of people everywhere, whether or
not they realize it. It is Christ in them who gives them some
knowledge of God’s love and God’s Law. As God’s Law, Christ is
himself the new Law in continuity with the Law found in the Old
Testament
Notice that this question is still relevant today for inculturation: Can people
who never heard of Christ be still motivated by Christ? If so, then preaching
is not so much a matter of bringing something unfamiliar to them but of
inviting them to notice what is already alive in their hearts. In the late
1900s, Karl Rahner refers to these people as ―anonymous Christians
 Clement of Alexandria (died about 214) Reaction on Gnostic and pagan
morality prompted
 The ―gnosis (Greek :knowledge) refers to the belief that authentic life is found only
by living in the higher realm of knowledge, rather than the lower realm of visible,
material reality. So it opposed the Jewish account of creation, where God saw the
material world as good. There were many gnostic movements in the early years of
Christianity, many of which shaped early Christian writing. Among the Dead Sea
Scrolls, unearthed in Egypt in 1947, were found The Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of
Truth, Treatise on the Resurrection, Gospel of Philip, Wisdom of Jesus Christ,
Revelation of James, Letter of Peter to Philip, On the Origin of the World and other
writings. These were known among the first generation of Christians, but were
excluded from the canonical or official writings of the New Testament being formed
at that time. Also owing to their anti-material views of life, many gnostics taught that
Jesus only appeared to be human; he did not really suffer and die a human death.
The gnostic view of life has always had its adherents throughout history, as we can
see in spiritual movements that take dim views of our physical, historical condition
and seek fulfillment in the higher realms of knowledge.
 Reaction of Clement of Alexandria
 confronted by such philosophy and morality with a systematic outline of
Christian ethics: His aim was to take over the gnostic instinct by naming Jesus
Christ as the perfect Gnostic. Those who come to know Christ know the secret
that true life lies in goodness and love. This is not a secret in the sense that
secret societies withdraw from the world but rather an inner commitment to be
light to the historical world and salt of the populated, material earth. The
Christian secret of living well is to be as unbounded in goodness as God himself
is.
In this effort, Clement relied on Platonic philosophy that envisions all embracing spiritual
ideas as actual realities—particularly the realities of goodness and love. At the same
time, his thought on marriage was influenced by the Stoic view that sexual intercourse
presented grave dangers to the spirit. However In his presentation Clement exhibited a
rather optimistic vision of life, a willingness to integrate the Gospel truth with the insights
of the pagan world. He viewed pagan wisdom as "so many seeds strewn by the Logos,"
and thus expected a fundamental continuity between experience and revelation. Clement
was not above dealing with concrete issues; at one point he described in detail the
typical day of the Christian with its various ethical challenges. But even in such
discussions he revealed a humanistic and optimistic perspective.
Origen (died about 254)
 Origin (possibly a student of Clement) unlike his teacher was opposed gnosticism by
presenting a full-blown systematic theology aimed to make sense of the universe
quite apart from gnostic influences. This was likely influenced by the fact that many
gnostic proponents (such as Valentinus, d.c, 160) had developed full-blown systems
of their own. It is true that he was an educated man, in touch with pagan knowledge
and willing to make use of it.
 in his Peri Archon. Book III devoted large section to morality.
 He dealt with concept like freedom-which he established through reason, he
discussed issues like the world and the flesh, and the definitive triumph of good at the
end of time.
 It was Origen who first used the classic concept of the cardinal virtues in Christian
theology. But even so, one discerns in his discussions of sin, of human freedom, and
of the meaning of salvation a relatively pessimistic view of human life. As a
representative in theology of monastic movement, of the concern for "white
martyrdom," Origen was much more inclined to dichotomize the life of Christian faith
and the life of the world.
Golden age of the early church
 4th and 6th Century : The fourth century is often called the golden age
of the early church. Persecution ceased; Constantine ended
persecution of Christianity; and monasticism began with St. Anthony (d.
356) in the desert. The Cappadocian Fathers in the East, such as Basil
the Great (d. 379); John Chrysostom (d. 407), a proponent of the
Antiochean school and patriarch of Constantinople; and in the West St.
Ambrose (d. 397), the bishop of Milan, all borrowed from the Greek and
Roman culture in their understanding of Christian morality.
 However two great heresy also faced the church
 Pelagianism
 Manichaeanism
 Manichaeanism: An ontological dualism

 This movement is named after Mani, a 3rd century Persian who
aimed to synthesize what he regarded as the major religions,
particularly Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Babylonian popular religion,
and a few elements of Christianity.
 The Manichaean view of why we do wrong was that there are two
equal but opposed universal forces, one for good and one for evil.
(An ontological dualism or ―duality in being itself.) Our human
condition is essentially a battle between these two forces. They
point to a distinction between Matter and Spirit found in both Greek
philosophy and Christian scriptures. But rather than regard Matter
as subordinate to and benefitting from Spirit (the gnostic view),
Manicheans regard the two as eternally opposed. We do wrong
because we give in to needs of our bodies and not to the needs of
our spirit. Relying in part on Aristotle, they also believed that
women are just deficient males.
 Pelagianism
 The Pelagians were a group who strenuously opposed the Manichaean
dualistic views of reality.
 Pelagius himself, a contemporary of Augustine, was raised in the British
Isles but spent his adult life in Rome preaching a strong Christian
asceticism.
 His core doctrine about faith and ethics is that God created everyone and
everything as good. There is no evil god. And God, being all good, made
us naturally good. The so-called original sin of Adam and Eve set a bad
example of pride, but it did not infect human nature itself as being more
prone to evil because of their sin. Similarly, Christ does not give a new
nature to Christians or a new power for living virtuously but rather a good
example of humility for Christians to follow in leading a virtuous life.
 Not that living a virtuous life was easy. Asceticism and self-discipline are
essential. But goodness is within us. We are on our own. God created
everything, but leaves it to our intelligence and good will to live our best. In
other words, we do wrong because we don’t try hard enough to do right.
 St. Ambrose (333-97):
 He gave a remarkable exposition in his landmark book De officiis

which may be looked upon as the first systematic work of moral
theology. It contain of the virtues of clerics and Christians.
 The work was inspired by Cicero's work of the same title, but he drew
his doctrine and examples from Scripture and Christian experience
rather than from pagan sources. While contextualizing his reflections
with the vision of Christian faith and doctrine,
 Ambrose addressed himself to the myriad "duties" of the believer.

And he sought to articulate these moral responsibilities in a concrete
way that presaged the works of casuistry that would flourish 1300
years later. Perhaps we might call Ambrose the first of the Christian
casuists.
Augustine (died 430)
 Most notable of the patristic figures, however, is Ambrose’s disciple,

Augustine of Hippo (d. 430). Augustine is a compelling, and at the
same time rather confusing, representative of the early Church.
Some have called him one of the greatest moral theologians of all
time. Others note the negative influence of his rigorist, perhaps
subtly Manichean perspective on later Church teaching. All this is
debated despite the fact that he never attempted to develop a
coherent and inclusive system of moral theory. Instead, Augustine’s
style (and it is a characteristic of the era) was to range far and wide
across the spectrum of theological concepts and human concerns.
He sketched his personal theological vision in his Confessions, he
developed his understanding of the world in City of God, and he
wrote shorter works on such diverse ethical topics as lying,
widowhood, and especially sexual ethics and theological virtues. He
penetrate doctrinal truths that form basis for Christian morality
Augustine a Thinker
 If Augustine does not demand our attention because of his systematic approach,
he does because of the shape of his thought. He addressed himself to the
perennial underlying issues of ethics: the relationship of faith and works, of grace
and freedom, of sin and virtue. He focused on the centrality of love in the
Christian life. He utilized a rather psychological, introspective (Looking inside
self), and inductive approach to the development of ethical insight. And in all
these ways he revealed himself as a fundamentally modern Christian thinker.
St. Augustine a Homilist
 St. Augustine's commentaries: his preaching on the Sermon on the
Mount, one hundred and twenty-four homilies on the Gospel of
John, ten treatises on the First Letter of John, and his celebrated
meditations on the Psalms, a spiritual gem. His explanation of the
Sermon on the Mount is of great significance he chose this as the
subject of his first series of homilies after he became a priest,
precisely because it contained a complete exposition of the Gospel
teaching on Christian ethics.
St Augustine Moralist
 The moral thinking of Augustine is teleological morality based on God as the end of our
longing. Augustine emphasized the grace of God which delivers us from sin and makes
Christian living possible. The Christian is called to love God above all things, and the
follower of Jesus enjoys God as the end and uses all other things in relationship to God.
Sin, like love, resides in the will and consists in our inordinate love of a lesser good (e.g.,
self) which makes it an end instead of a means. The two different loves give rise to the two
cities City of God and the City of Man. On particular issues he first enunciated the just war
principle, and his pessimistic understanding of human sexuality (conjugal intercourse can
be justified only for the purpose of procreation and usually entails venial sin) greatly
influenced the Christian tradition.
 He reinterpreted the classic four cardinal (―pivotal) virtues of Socrates as all functions of
love for God.
 Thus Temperance, surprisingly, is not restraint but ―giving itself entirely to that which
is loved.
 Fortitude is not brave acts but ―love readily bearing all things for the sake of the
beloved.
 Justice is not simple fairness but ―serving only the loved object, and therefore ruling
rightly.
 Prudence is the wisdom to distinguish between what helps and what hinders this love.
Thus love for God is both the ultimate motive for good acts and the ultimate criterion
for judging the goodness of an act.
Sixth century emerging of penitential books
Social Political Changed of the Century

 In the history of Christian theology the sixth century marks an important political
and religious watershed. Constantine had moved the seat of power of the Roman
Empire to the East (Constantinople) in the 4th century. From that time on the
Western part of the Roman Empire had to deal with wave after wave of
“barbarians” entering the Empire and establishing control over various parts of the
Western Empire
 In the Western power vacuum created by the Eastern Emperors, the popes
stepped in to take leadership and used the Church to provide some stability
among the various “nations”. The Church’s response to the barbarians was to
convert them and make them look to the Pope for leadership. With the conversion
of the powerful Franks, the stage was set for the establishment of Christendom
 Pope Leo III crowning of Charlemagne as emperor the Roman empire and
protector of the papacy on Christmas Day 800, formally inaugurated an era of
Christendom. The Christian faith had emerged from its minority status and had
become the commitment of the masses. It had become the officially espoused
religion of the state, and its theological vision and pastoral approach had to be
appropriately adjusted.
Sixth century
 Sacrament of reconciliation
 One of the more significant elements of that adjustment was the change in practice as regards
the Sacrament of Reconciliation. During the Patristic era this sacrament had been relatively
rare it was considered ‘second baptism’. Its use was limited to the confession of truly major
sins, lengthy penances were required before absolution, and the penitent was not allowed to
return to the sacrament with any frequency.
 During the sixth century, however, this practice changed. Particularly in Ireland and through the
ministry of the Celtic monks, the confession of sin became more private and more frequent, a
much more comprehensive variety of sins were submitted to the confessor, and penances
began to be fulfilled after absolution. In a word, then, the Sacrament of Reconciliation became
much more an ongoing component of the Christian life.
 This, however, had immediate implications for moral theology. For it was presumed that the
penances should fit the particularities of the sins confessed. Therefore, it needed some
systematic reflection on the nature of sin, its varieties, and on the demands of retributive justice
was required. Moreover, at this time the level of clerical education was notably low, with the
result that priests could not generally be trusted to make unguided judgments in these matters.
Penitential Books.
These were not really works of theology. Even less were they descriptions of the ideals to be sought in the
Christian life. Rather they were simply lists of typical sins along with an indication of the appropriate penance in
each case. But despite their modest intent, these books exercised a far-reaching influence on the future of moral
theology. Here Mahoney's first chapter is key. He notes in particular three negative aspects of the theological
heritage of the Penitentials and the whole of moral theology up to Vatican II
For one, the Penitential Books were addressed to priest-confessors. Thus began the rather unhealthy
identification of moral theology both with the Sacrament of Penance and with priests. This presumption that
moral theology is primarily for priests has survived to our own time, and only recently has it been challenged.
Secondly, the very specific purpose of these books inevitably led to the association of moral theology with
Christian minimalism. That is, the very existence of lists such as those in the Penitential Books tempted the
Christian world to conclude that virtuous and faithful living consisted in the avoidance of the sins mentioned
therein and that successful avoidance of these sins justified confidence in one’s moral righteousness. There
was, or appeared to be, no reason to "walk the extra mile."
Thirdly, the specific association of penance with sin encouraged an approach to Christian forgiveness that
emphasized not mercy but justice. Absolution became more a matter of retribution. And thus the focus on the
loving kindness of God, while never lost, was quite overshadowed.
Scholastic period middle ages/ Medieval 12th – 14th c
 It is not possible to indicate any particular year when the scholastic

period began. We may say that the patristic period closed with the death
of St. Bernard, the last of the Fathers, in the year 1153. Many of the
characteristics of scholasticism, however, and especially the application
of philosophy to the exposition and defense of theology are conspicuous
in the works of many of the Fathers of this age
 This period is springtime for theology as a whole, and more or less for
moral theology in particular. The Catholic moral tradition depends heavily
on the developments of this period, it is the period that coincided with the
origin of universities, where theology moved from pulpit to classroom
attaining Systematic and scientific arrangement in which the various
parts are harmoniously related to each other. Logic of presenting
theology began to appear at this time.
middle ages/ Medieval 12th – 14th century
Method of doing theology in scholastic period

 With emergence of scholastic period theology attained a definitive method of
study. It was the approved method, the standard approach to theology.
Theology had not always been done this way, in fact this is a creation of the
Middle Ages.
Context of scholastic period

 Shortly after the passing of the first millennium, the character of European
culture underwent a significant change, and that change had considerable
influence on the progress of moral theology. This was the era of the rise of
the great European universities. Before middle ages there were no
universities. There were monastic schools where the monks taught groups of
students. Out of the monastic schools grew the cathedral schools in the large
cathedral towns where people would come and study. Out of those cathedral
schools came the universities. By the time we come to the high Middle Ages,
the university is part of the landscape of Europe.
Shift from Madarasa type education to real university studies
 In the monastic schools, and somewhat in the cathedral schools, the way of
study could be described as devotional (madarasa). It was like going to
chapel all the time and hearing the Word of God read, hearing devotional
writings read. They studied these things with a view to one’s own heart and
the application of all of this to one’s life.
 In the universities, that began to shade over into scientific theology,
philosophical theology, and academic theology. The method that was used in
the universities was the dialectical method. That was in large measure based
on Aristotle’s way of doing philosophy and based on Aristotelian logic. It was
a certain prescribed method. If you wanted to do theology you did it this
way. You learned how to do it in the university this way. Books were written
this way.
Age of Summers
 The summers represented the ideal of integral scholarship. Everything was
set up this way. It was a formal procedure in which a question was posed.
That question became the issue of debate. Theology really became a matter
of debate. Centers of learning proliferated and the quality of education
greatly improved. It was still Catholic Europe of course, and thus theology
held a central place in these new universities. But if theology influenced the
academic scene, it is also true that the academic world influenced theology
Scholastic Period
 In academic scene of universities, the Systematic thought was the
order of the day; the urge was to integrate, summarize, and logically
articulate. The decisive and most characteristic element of scholastic
period was the adoption and general use of the scholastic method.
 This meant a veritable revolution in intellectual research, in theology

as in other sciences. We can define the scholastic method by its two
essential and complementary features:
 The acceptance of "authorities," or major works of antiquity, as

sources of knowledge and bases for teaching; rediscovery of
Greek philosophers Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics on the
classification of the virtues was found very helpful.
 The use of dialectic as reason's chief tool in the working out of

Science.
Use of Philosophy in Scholastic Period
Scholastic theology was very concerned to relate its work to a philosophical system. Philosophy was viewed as a
valuable asset to Christian theology in a couple of ways.
1. One, it could demonstrate the reasonableness of faith and thus defend the Christian faith against non-
Christian critics.
2. By using philosophy, theologians hoped to be able to show that Christianity really had some rationality to
it. It made sense; it was not ridiculous. It could answer these questions, and it could answer them in terms
of the philosophical system that was being employed.
3. Another reason that Christians wanted to use philosophy was that it enabled theologians to systematically
arrange and order their theology. When you are going to write theology you have to have some sort of
order, some kind of outline. The Bible does not give us that. To make a systematic theology, there has to
be some way of putting it all together in a coherent and organized form. Philosophy seemed to offer some
help in enabling Christian theologians to systematize their writings. Their purpose in all of this was to set
forth theology in a systematic, orderly way so that Christians could better understand it. Philosophy was
viewed as an ally, as something important to be used. It was to be studied and used by theologians. The
problem, of course, was which philosophy?
Shift from Plato to Aristotle
 Early on the teaching of Plato appealed to theologians like Augustine, and Plato was often used in
some way as a philosophical background or context for the teaching of Christian theology. Full
understanding of Aristotle and his philosophical system was not known in the early Middle Ages in
the West. It came into the West in a rather strange way. Aristotle’s teaching, unknown to the
West, was known to the Muslims who had conquered much of the East. So the study of Aristotle
was taking place in Persia when Aristotle was not being studied in Rome and Paris and Oxford.
 As the Muslims conquered other areas, they took their knowledge of Aristotle with them all the
way to Spain. Muslim philosophers in Spain became the preeminent channel by which the full
understanding of Aristotle was then brought into the Christian West. When people began to read
Aristotle, they discovered a different sort of philosophy at work. It was a rational, empirical,
hard-headed concentration on the data. It was a more scientific approach to philosophy as over
against Plato’s more mystical, subjective approach. Reality, according to Aristotle, is explained by
observation and by logic. It is not so much by meditation as by study of the data. Many people in
the West adopted Aristotle then. The Aristotelian system, particularly Aristotelian logic,
became very important for the expression of Christian theology for presenting, organizing, and
defending Christian truth.
Christianizing Aristotle
 The problem with Aristotle, though, was that Aristotle was not a Christian. Plato was not
either, although some people tried to get him very close if not into the kingdom of
heaven because he was saying so many things that seemed right to Christians. So he
must have been a Christian if he got that right. But Aristotle is more of a problem
because in Aristotle’s teaching there is some very definitely, strongly stated non-
Christian positions like the eternity of the world.
 Aristotle believed in the eternity of the world, he seemed to believe in the mortality of
the soul. He does not have a high view, if any view at all, of providence. His concentration
on empirical, visible reality could be opposed to an acceptance of tradition and authority
in God and the Scripture. Christian theologians, as much as they could Christianize
Aristotle, took his system, tried to adjust his teaching, and overlooked some things. But
in terms of how to think, how to do philosophy, which in this period is the same thing as
doing theology, Aristotle became the philosopher. Not everybody was happy with that of
course not the Franciscan theology.
Early scholastic
Anticipating the threshold of scholastic theology of which moral theology belonged is St. Anselm
and Peter Lombard.
St. Anselm
Anselm was an Italian monk who went to the Abbey of Beck in Normandy. Then from Normandy he became
archbishop of Canterbury. With Anselm you get a bridge from the older way of doing theology to the newer
scholastic way.
Anselm has those two sides to him: the devotional side in which authority in the Word is so prominent, but the
scholastic side in which rationality and logic are becoming more and more significant. His book called Proslogion
starting point is “I believe in order to know.” He did not create that statement. Saint Augustine and many other
theologians had said the same thing, but you see what he is saying there. It starts with faith: I believe in order to
know. He starts with faith, with belief, and then in the context of faith and belief he moves to heaven and earth to
use logic and rationality in order to better understand what he already believes.
From Proslogion we get the great cosmological arguments for the existence of God. Those are arguments that move
from the creation to the Creator. Anselm was not the first person to think of all of this, but he organized it and
stated it in a very compelling way. You start with creation, with what is here, and then you argue to the Creator.
There are various ways to do that. For instance, you can start with the idea of design. As we look around us things
seem to have some pattern, some organization, some design. It is not haphazard. It is exquisitely put together. Then
you can argue from that idea found in the created world to the fact that there must be a designer, someone to put it
all together. It could not have happened accidentally. Thomas Aquinas will say the same thing.
Peter Lombard (d 1164)
Another very important figure is Peter Lombard. His work is contained inFour Books of the
Sentences. In it he divides theology into: God, creation and Old Testament, salvation through
Christ, and sacraments and last things. Lombard simply organizes theology this way: he
collects a lot of references from a lot of sources and tries to come up with some kind of
understanding of theology through this approach. Lombard became the standard theological
text for the Middle Ages. If you wanted to be a theologian, you had to master Lombard and
you had to produce something similar to Lombard. There were numerous commentaries on The
Sentences. All of this set forth, as you would expect standard medieval Catholic theology. Like
all great scholastic peter Lombard did not distinguish a special branch of moral theology in his
system he takes up the moral problem in connection with the teaching on creation, the fall of
man incarnation and the sacrament. The chief moral questions that Lombard discussed are
found first in his treatise on the first man, where he dwells on grace, on sin, on virtue and
merits, on the acts of the will; secondly in his treatise on Christ, where he dwells on faith
hope and charity, on cardinal virtues and on the seven gifts, on the ten commandment, on the
old law and new law in Christ.
Franciscan, Bonaventure (d. 1274).
The Seraphic Doctor, St. Bonaventure, was born in 1221 near Viterbo. he studied the liberal arts in Paris from
1236 to 1242. In 1243 he entered the Franciscan Order, he studied theology under Alexander of Hales and others.
He was master of the Franciscan school in Paris from 1253 to 1257
Franciscan, Bonaventure pursued what come to be identified as essential line of Franciscan school,
Franciscan school thought of theology as an indivisible doctrine of God and on man only as destined for God.
True to his Franciscan thought, His fundamental commitment was still to the Platonic tradition which
had prevailed in the centuries before, and out of that perspective he developed a brilliant synthesis of
Christian theology and morality. For Bonaventure, the central characteristic of people was their will,
their power to decide and to act. The intellect, while extremely important, was in the order of means, a
tool to be used for action. Indeed, Bonaventure declared that the purpose of all theology was not merely to
serve contemplation, but also to make us holy through the love of God. In fact its first purpose is to make
us holy.
And even in his discussion of the intellect he emphasized the "practical intellect" as our highest
achievement. Bonaventure had no separate presentation of moral theology; that was not the style in the age
of the Summas. But for the reasons mentioned above, his theological synthesis was an amiable contribution
to later reflections on that reality.
His Work
Bonaventure's most influential work over the centuries was composed at this time. For Francis's feast day in
October, 1259, Bonaventure visited Mt. Alverna, the very place where Francis himself had received a mystical vision
of Christ ”under the appearance“ of ”a Seraph having six wings“ and had had ”imprinted in his flesh“ the stigmata or
wounds of Christ. Here Bonaventure conceived the idea for his Journey of the Mind to God (Itinerarium mentis in
Deum), a mental and spiritual journey to God whose basic outline—though not its details—could be understood by
even the simplest friar.
The journey follows the route first charted by St. Augustine—from the exterior world to the interior mind, and
from the interior but inferior human mind to the superior mind, namely, to God. Bonaventure allegorically understood
the six wings of the angelic Seraph Francis saw to stand for six ways God can be approached and therefore arranged
his Journey into seven chapters.
The two lower wings of the Seraph symbolize seeing God through ”footprints ( vestigia),“ signs in the sub-human world that
point to God, including signs in the physical universe itself (c. 1) and signs found in the sensory life humans have in common with
other animals (c. 2).
The two middle wings of the Seraph symbolize seeing God in his ”image,“ namely, in humans understood as bearing within their
intellectual nature special signs pointing to God. Here Bonaventure distinguished signs of God found in the ”natural“ exercise of
the mind in theoretical knowledge (c. 3) from those found in its exercise in the practical sphere ”reformed by grace“ (c. 4).
The two highest wings of the Seraph symbolize seeing God in himself, first in the way reason sees God as having one divine
nature (c. 5) and then as faith sees God in the Trinity of persons (c. 6). These three sets of twin ”steps“ culminate in the
”mental and mystical transport“ found in mystical experience (c. 7), the end of the Journey
Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274).
The other figure was Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). Aquinas, the Dominican, holds unparalleled fame
in Catholic theology, and for many wise reasons.
In his time the writings of Aristotle were being rediscovered; and it was Aquinas who
especially demonstrated the aptness of that philosophy for the articulation of Christian
theology.
For Aquinas, as for Aristotle, humans were preeminently intellectual beings, rational
animals. And their highest achievement was precisely that contemplation which Bonaventure
played down.
Theology was for understanding; it was a pure science in the service of pure truth. It is
clear, then, that Aquinas would have no place for a separate science of moral theology. The
isolation of behavior from truth was precisely what he opposed. But to say this is not to say
Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274).
His main work, in which he gives a synthesis of the whole of theology, is the Summa Theologica.
It is divided into three parts.
Part I treats of God in Himself,
part II of the rational creature's movement toward God,
part Ill of Christ who as man is our way to God.
The second which is basically work of moral theology comprise of a systematic treatise of
moral theology.
It has two great subdivisions. Division I of part II of the Summa (I-II) is properly a
species of general moral theology. It treats the doctrine of the last end; of freedom of will;
of the passions and the habits; of the virtues in general; of sins; of natural, human, and
revealed law; and of grace. (The section on grace follows the section on the revealed law
because "that: which is preponderant in the law of the New Testament and I whereon all its
efficacy is based is the grace of the Holy Spirit.").
Division II of part II (ll-lI) presents the treatise on special moral, It deals with the whole
realm of moral life comprehended in the three divine virtues and the four cardinal virtues.
Rationale of St Thomas Ethics
Interestingly, he did not organize his ethics around the Ten Commandments, but rather around the virtues.
Aquinas saw the biblical precepts as supernatural manifestations of the true content of the virtues. The
Commandments teach us how to live the virtues. He begins his section on ethics with the question of
happiness.
Human being is naturally inclined to happiness
First, he determines that we are naturally inclined toward happiness, and that we can only be fulfilled through
communion with God, which is fully attained in heaven. The key to Aquinas’ ethics is not duty or obedience, but
happiness. We are naturally inclined to the good by our Creator, despite the wounds of sin (Aquinas, Summa Theologiae,
I-II, questions 1-6). By learning and practicing the virtues and seeking out God’s grace, especially in the sacraments, we
overcome those wounds and attain a gradually increasing share of our true happiness.
Aquinas proposed a second crucial insight. He was convinced that revelation is not just a manifestation of God’s will,
but also a manifestation of his being and wisdom (thus we share in God wisdom by being rational)
A third crucial insight of Aquinas is as follows. Since the God whose wisdom is revealed in the Bible also created the
universe with wisdom, there is an essential harmony between the order of creation and the order prescribed in
revelation.
Aquinas was convinced that moral law was not so much the expression of the divine lawmaker’s arbitrary will as a
manifestation of his wisdom and love. For Aquinas, divine law was not something to be dreaded. We can better
understand this if we grasp his notion of freedom.
Aquinas Ethics
Thomistic morality is grounded in what is for the fulfillment of the human being. Morality is intrinsic;
something is commanded because it is good.
The approach to what we now call fundamental moral theology (what is common to all moral
acts) begins with the tract on the ultimate end of human beings, which is happiness, then
discusses the acts by which we come to the ultimate end:
Human Act leading Human End (Happiness)
the intrinsic principles of our acts, which are powers and faculties modified by habits;
the extrinsic principles of human acts, which are the (devil in bad acts) and God, who guides us by
law and grace.
He discusses natural law only in this last section. Thomas develops what we now call special
moral theology, or the different actions all human beings do, on the basis of the three
theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity and the cardinal moral virtues-prudence, justice,
fortitude, and temperance.
Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries raise of Nominalism
Contextual setting of the period

Shortly after the deaths of Aquinas and Bonaventure, there began a process of change and development
which can hardly be overestimated in its influence on moral theology. The first step in the process was marked
by two highly significant changes in the theological situation. On the one hand, the philosophical context
shifted radically.
Theologically the Universities became dominated by quarrels between the religious orders. The quarrels were
particularly between Franciscan and Dominicans Franciscan schools. Franciscan exemplified by Alexander of Hales,
Bonaventure, and Donus Scotus. Franciscan schools were self styled guardian of the Augustinian tradition considered
Dominicans innovative and reacted to Thomistic -Aristolianism. The struggle went into two separate way Franciscan
advocating primacy of will and Dominicans the primacy of intellect.
Philosophically the high Scholasticism philosophy of the thirteenth century devolved, in the fourteenth, into a
nominalistic vision of reality. The conviction that the human person was capable of distilling concepts, universal notions
that capture and represent the real essence of things, was replaced by a skepticism in this regard. Basic philosophical
position: According to nominalism, only individual realities exist. They are unique in their singular existence. Universals
are simply convenient labels, having no reality in themselves and only nominal value. Within the moral domain, reality lies
in the individual decision of the free will. The man who took center stage in this period was William Ockham.
William Ockham. (d. 1349)
William a Franciscan English man studying in oxford never received a masters degree because the
chancellor John Lutterel accused him of having dangerous doctrine he remand bachelor though out his life
so much so that people referred to him as venerable inceptor.
Ockham developed the thought of his Franciscan predecessor Duns Scotus in extolling God’s infinite
power and unrestricted will. For Ockham, the greatest attribute of God is that nothing restricts his
action. This idea may seem rather biblical: “Nothing is impossible for God,” in the words of the angel
Gabriel to Mary. But Ockham would take this doctrine in a radical new direction .
Because God’s will is unrestricted, we should not think that he is limited by an understanding of
justice or wisdom that we may derive from revelation. Rather, revelation is simply one expression of
God’s unrestricted will.
God chose to give us the Ten Commandments, but these should not limit him. Rather, God is free to
command someone to hate him, and that person would have to obey, since one should never disobey
God. The Ten Commandments and other moral laws revealed in Scripture are not expressions of God’s
wisdom, since that wisdom might limit his will. Rather, God gives us arbitrary decrees.
William Ockham. (d. 1349)
Ockham turns human being .
Being Created in Image and likeness of God Human being greatest characteristic of the human being
is his or her freedom. For Ockham, freedom means the absence of restrictions. The will is not
naturally inclined to the good, or to happiness, since this would restrict the will. Rather, the will is
completely undetermined, and is free to choose this or that. For Ockham, this is our great dignity as
human beings. Notice that his understanding of freedom is the opposite of Aquinas’. Pinckaers calls it
“freedom of indifference,” the freedom to choose this or that, to choose whatever I want.
This Ockham’s notion of the will and human freedom had radical consequences for his whole vision of
the human person. For example, he denies that we have a natural inclination toward happiness. This
means that we are not naturally inclined to the good. The human will is simply neutral and
undetermined. Any inclinations would restrict the will and thus limit freedom. This also means that
our other faculties like the mind and the emotions do not have natural inclinations. Acting justly in
business will not necessarily lead to greater happiness. For Ockham, virtue and happiness have little
to do with Christian morals.
What replaced the virtues and our natural inclinations in Ockham’s ethics?
The Commandments of God now took center stage, except that they were simply his arbitrary
decrees. The key to the moral life was accepting restrictions on one’s freedom and obeying the divine
lawmaker, no matter what he decreed.
Morality was now reduced to obedience and duty. Being moral might make you happy if God decides
that it should, but there is really no guarantee.
God could change his mind tomorrow and decide to command you to hate your neighbor, since he is
free and unrestricted.
Christian holiness was no longer a matter of fulfilling one’s God-given potential and inclination toward
happiness and the right use of our human powers. The key to holiness was now found in blind
obedience. Since the Commandments only express God’s arbitrary will, his wisdom remains utterly
mysterious. The Sermon on the Mount need not be a manifestation of God’s face.
Aquinas and Ockham answer the question, “why should I follow the Ten Commandments?” in radically
different ways. Aquinas would say that you should obey the Commandments because they will make you
happy and deepen your communion with God. Ockham would answer that you should obey the
commandments because God said so. Ockham pushed his idea of divine freedom to the limit. He
proposed that God is perfectly free to condemn the saint to hell.
consequence of William’s Thinking
One obvious consequence of William thought is that the essence taught by scholastic was lost. Nominalist became
convinced that there were no such essences, that the human person did not achieve universal concepts. Rather it was
the uniqueness of each existing thing that was the object of human intellectual attention.
The only way in which one could move beyond the unique existent was by a somewhat arbitrary process of
"collection." Nominalists willingly conceded that it was common practice to grant various groupings of objects a
general and inclusive name. But in their judgment these names were simply that and nothing more. There is no
essence or nature "tree." We simply group various unique existing things and call them "trees." For nominalists reality
is fundamentally discontinuous.
This philosophical development was ethically important because it rendered useless the attempt to discuss the
nature of the Christian life and to predict intrinsically good or intrinsically bad acts. Where there is utter
uniqueness there is no tool of predictability. And where that tool is lacking, there can ultimately be no useful
objective component to ethical decision-making.
In fact, the consequence of a nominalist epistemology is complete ethical individualism. My situation is utterly
unique, and I am an utterly unique person. Hence, only I can judge what I must do; and even I can only judge in the
midst of the experience. If society finds itself threatened by this individualism, it has only one alternative: the
arbitrary imposition of law. Society cannot attempt to impose demonstrably rational guides for action. For these
presume the existence of universals and essences. So it can only have recourse to power, to the naked demand for
conformity. Thus, if the immediate consequence of nominalism is individualism, its eventual consequence is legalism.
Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Martin Luther (1483-1546

 Context that influence his thinking
 Economic system that emphasized Justice
 Moral system that was ligalistic
 Luther the monk, Luther the Christian tortured by personal feelings of inadequacy and
sinfulness, Luther the student of St. Paul. This Martin Luther entered a Christian situation
that was far removed from the Gospel ideal. The situation emphasized justice, and Luther was
convinced that no one is just. The situation emphasized the law, and Luther shared Paul’s
distrust of law. The situation focused on minimums, and Luther felt driven to perfection. The
situation cherished good works, and Luther placed his trust in faith. We are, of course,
sketching with a broad brush events that included innumerable subtleties. But for our
purposes it may suffice to become conscious of the polarities. For they indicate the shape of
the response to Luther.
 Council of Trent
 Was called to counter the Reform by Luther
 When the Church finally formulated its Counter-Reformation in the Council of Trent, it was faced with a
full-scale rebellion. Much of Europe had been lost to the Church, and the first priority was to establish the
lines of demarcation with clarity. The placement of those lines has influenced moral theology down to our
own times.
 What did Council came up with?
 In a situation of such total conflict the council of Trent, and the Church, may be forgiven for an
overwhelming emphasis upon the practicalities of behavior. This was not the time for leisurely
theological or philosophical discussions; like any time of war, it left little time for speculation.
Action was required; unanimity and uniformity were necessities. Thus the response of the council
had those characteristics
 For one thing seminaries were established. For the first time in the history of the Church a clear and
formal system for the education of clergy was developed. Clergy were to be isolated from the crises
and turbulence of the day. They were to be provided with clear and concise directions for their
ministry. They were to be inculcated with loyalty and a willingness to obey.
 What did Council came up with?

 For another thing, the kind of education provided seminarians was to emphasize the
behavior necessary for the Catholic. It was important to know what to do, and those areas
of theology which indicated the proper action were to be highlighted. And thus, again for
the first time in the history of the Church, the separate science of moral theology
emerged. No longer was it merely a matter of reflecting on the truths of the faith and, in
the course of this, taking note of their behavioral implications. Now it was a matter of
directly and extensively specifying the requirements of the Christian life. (we need to know
what to do and what not to do)
 For a third thing, when this separate moral theology emerged, it took on a specific
character. It, too, was expected to emphasize the concrete, the objective, the necessary
and required. And thus, as moral theology be-came separated from its roots in dogmatic
theology, it became affiliated with that other science dedicated to these qualities, namely
canon law. It was the law that indicated most clearly what one must do; and so it was
completely reasonable to graft moral theology
Manuals of moral theology
 Now that we have Seminaries what was to be taught in this? future priests had to receive a formation adapted to
their ministerial needs, particularly the administration of the sacrament of penance. This necessitated the working
out of appropriate theological courses, especially in the area of moral theology.
 In this connection group of Jesuit writers devoted their efforts to a study of select questions, particularly in the
field of the morality of law. With famous scholars as
 Louis Molina (died in 1600) investigates the development of trade and finance especially in Spain and Portugal.
Leonard Lessius (died in 1623) makes a study of the industrial and social politics with emphasis on the trade
area of his home country, the Netherlands. Thomas Sanchez (died in 1610) wrote a massive work on marriage,
which comprises the whole traditional theology of marriage and also the matrimonial legislation
 Were called upon to organize studies that would address both the requirements of theology and the pastoral work.
In 1586 a Jesuit commission was formed to draw up a syllabus of theological studies.
 In Jesuits syllabus, in spite of some resistance, adopted St. Thomas's Summa theologiae as the foundation of
its teaching. Animated, however, by pastoral concerns, the Jesuits distinguished between a major and minor
course in moral theology. The major course was designed for more speculative study, while the minor course
was more practical, and basically oriented to the formation of the students in treating concrete cases.
Organization of Manuals of moral theology
 The general elements necessary as a foundation for moral theology were borrowed from
speculative theology, and this became fundamental moral theology.
 The material comprised by moral theology was then exposed in detail, following the order
of the commandments, and this became specialized moral theology.
 In this way, all elements useful for the direct, circumstantial study of cases of conscience
were gathered together. Some treatises, such as those on the final end of man and on
grace, were considered too speculative and were dropped from specialized moral theology.
 Those on human acts, the habitus and virtues, law, conscience, and sin, were retained.
Finally, the commandments of God and of the Church were to be studied, together with
the sacraments, from the viewpoint of the obligations regarding their administration.
 Eventually, obligations proper to certain states of life, such as religious life, were
included, and, last of all, canonical censures connected with the sacrament of penance.
Organization of Manuals of moral theology
Such was the program, in general outline, on which the Spanish Jesuit Juan Azor (1536-1603), a
professor in Rome, embarked in his syllabus of moral theology, formally entitled (insitutiones
morales). In his introduction Azor proposes fourfold division.
 The ten commandment
 The seven sacraments
 Ecclesiastical censures and penalties, indulgences
 State of life and final ends
But note that while manuals were in some ways conservative documents, greatly dependent upon arguments from
authority, they were also somehow pastoral. For given the legalistic premise that prevailed, there was a great
tendency to multiply laws to the point of completely eliminating the reality of Christian freedom. In this context,
manuals often functioned as voices of reason, guiding the confessor away from the extremes and toward the
moderate position. They prevented the priests of the day from arbitrarily imposing unreasonable demands on their
people and instead protected a certain gentle and patient spirit in moral theology. Still, one could hardly celebrate
the manuals as paradigms of profound moral theology. They were simply too much creatures of their own
philosophical, theological, and cultural milieu for that. And so eventually a move away from the manuals was to be
expected, a fundamental renewal of moral theology was required.
Moral disputes of 17th and 18th century
 With manuals, moral theology no longer formed a unity with the dogmatic teaching of the great
theological summas.
 Remember the Council of Trent had enunciated the norm requiring the confession of all mortal sins,
according to their number, species, and circumstances.
 It equally emphasized the need of a more thorough-going care of souls as a whole on the part of the
clergy.
 Therefore, it became imperative that the priest and director of souls acquire a. more precise knowledge
Christian morality, particularly in its practical and positive phases. There was also the aspiration to
incorporate into moral theology all the obligations for the faithful and above all for the priest resulting
from canon law and liturgical prescriptions, so that the pastor would have together in one book all the
obligations to be taught and to be fulfilled.
 The concern manual book is the question of the morally good and evil, first under objective and second
under subjective aspect, and in addition the question of what has to be done or omitted by the pastor in
the fulfillment of his pastoral duties, particularly in the administration of the sacraments
Moral disputes of 17th and 18th century
 Formation of certain conscience
 Special attention was focused on the problem of the formation of a certain conscience in cases of
doubt.
 What, exactly, is the right thing to do? What is the minimum expected of the Catholic Christian?
 How can one permit a certain amount of legitimate Christian freedom while at the same time protecting the
supremacy of objective moral demand?
 What is the proper response to a situation in which the demands of the law are in doubt?
 Questions such as these were hotly debated by moralists and controversies rose in their response. The
controversy led to two extremes.
 There were those authors who devoted themselves excessively to casuistry and were tending rapidly to
laxism, people like Diana, Theatine, Tamburini, and John Caramuel, were called the prince of laxists. For
them when one is in doubt about existence of the law one is allowed to choose whatever he/she fill free
to do.
 The reaction against this extreme was another extreme the rigorism of the Jansenists. This brought
about the great controversy on the well- known problem of probabilism.
Probabilism
 Probabilism is one way of approaching difficult matters of conscience. It provides a way

of answering the question about what to do when one does not know what to do.
Probabilism proposes that one can follow a probable opinion regarding whether an act
may be performed morally, even though the opposite opinion is more probable. It was
first formulated in 1577 by Bartholomew Medina, OP, who taught at Salamanca
according to probabilism, one may safely follow a doctrine approved by a recognized
Doctor of the Church, even if the opposite opinion is more probable as judged by other
considerations, such as scientific considerations or many other recognized authoritative
opinions. A more radical view, "minus probabilissimus", holds that an action is
permissible if a single opinion allowing that action is available, even if the overwhelming
weight of opinion proscribes it. This view was advanced by the Spanish theologian
Bartolomé de Medina (1527–1581) and defended by many Jesuits
 Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787).

 The quarrels over probabilism finally conditioned a sterility of the whole moral theological
endeavour. It was the special merit Alphonsus Liguori (d. 1787), later made a saint, a
doctor of the church, and the patron of moral theology, brought peace to moral theology
by his practical prudence and Christian good sense in adopting a moderate form of
probabilism and in his approach to specific issues. As a result of his work the
controversies calmed down and became a question of normal interest in moral theology.
 Alphonsus Liguori (1696-1787).
From his own pastoral experience, Alphonse knew that overburdening

people's conscience with laws, especially if these laws were arbitrary,
suffocated the creativity of love and freedom and caused anguish. Most of
the good that Christians do is neither regulated nor imposed by law but is
inspired by spontaneous and creative love. Therefore, the core of
Alphonsian moral teaching is the ability to discern what is true love,
genuine redeemed and redeeming love.
Two distinct traits of Alphonsian moral theology are the great reverence
he accords each person's conscience and the equally strong appeal to
each individual to form a mature conscience. For St. Alphonse Formation of
conscience centers on the ability to discern what furthers or hinders the
growth of true love. Formation of conscience coincides with the formation
of character and an ever more committed choice to love Jesus, joining him
in his loving concern for others. Favoring the preeminence of conscience
and inner freedom over an anguishing rigorism and legalism is the hallmark
of Alphonsian moral teaching.
 Second Vatican Council and Renewal of Moral Theology
When John XXIII (formerly Angelo Roncalli) called the Council few months after
his election to office (on October 28, 1958) many were caught in surprise.
Without having very concrete ideas about the content of the council, John XXIII
identified two objectives: an adaptation (aggiornamento) of the Church and of
apostolate to a world undergoing great transformation, and a return to unity
among Christians, which seems to be what the Pope thought would happen
shortly. He saw that the Church needed to make the message of faith more
relevant to people in the twentieth century. He called for, a freshening of
thinking and practices that would better enable the Church to do God's work
and serve the whole people of God on earth. The Pope did not have a fully
formulated plan as Bishop Christopher Butler wrote in his book shortly after the
council:
So there was to be a Second Vatican Council. What would be its business?
Nothing in particular, it would appear; or perhaps it would be truer to say:
everything. ... Christian unity was the Pope's distant goal, no doubt, but his
immediate aim was 'to let some fresh air into the Church' and to promote
Context of the Council
Vatican II was an ecumenical council that represents a major event in the life of the Church of the 20th
century, and for this reason it constitutes a fundamental era in universal history.
It Brought to be the conclusion of the Tridentine period and the beginning of a new phase in the history of
the Church.
We are accustomed to thinking that Pope John XXIII’s announcement came like a ‘bolt from the blue’
Indeed John XXIII himself wrote that the idea came to him ‘suddenly and unexpectedly’. However, even in
the pontificates of Pius IX and Pius XII there was speculation about the possibility of a council, and in the
case of Pius XII some preparation was undertaken by the Roman Curia with a view to a council being held.
The task then envisaged was the completion of the work of Vatican I which had been suspended formally
by Pope Pius IX in October 1870, following the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war in July 1870. The
short-hand of history records that it was dominated by the definition of papal infallibility, the nature of which
is often widely misunderstood.
Nineteen sixties world had changed, that same world was the ambience and the context in which
Christians lived. It was not to be ignored. The changes since Trent had included the Enlightenment, the
industrial revolution, one of the forces bringing vast social and economic changes, and then not least,
Darwin’s On the Origin of Species was and remains deeply significant. The theory of evolution was one of
the triggers for the expansion of Biblical criticism, which Tanner explains, together with the questioning of
Revelation, accompanied as it was by the further rise of secularism. Nineteen sixties also saw a cry to
freedom and renewal of institutions the church was in no way to be left alone.
Pope John xxiii The man behind the council

Was John xxii a rebel pope
There is nothing in Pope John’s background to

indicate that he was in any sense a radical. His
encyclicals and other writings as pope were all of a
generally conservative nature.
 but in his own words it was the work of holy spirit.
The pope said that the council would be the means to
open the windows of the Church to let in the fresh air
of the Holy Spirit, and he further hoped that it would
represent a new Pentecost.
Context of the Council
 Taking off of the council

 After nearly four years of preparation, much of it
undertaken by the Roman Curia, the council got down to
work. It produced in all sixteen documents, some
immensely inspirational, others less so.
 One of the most novel aspects of the council was the fact
that it did not confine itself to theological, religious and
disciplinary matters internal to Catholicism. It deliberated
on social issues, questions of war and peace, and justice
in the world. Moreover it stretched out the hand of fraternal
love not simply to other Christians in the sprit of unity for
which Christ prayed, but it also sought better relations with
Judaism, with people of others faiths and with humanity in
general. The council rejected ‘nothing of what is
authentically human’, since ultimately all that is human
comes from God.
Some of Theology in cry for Renewal
 Pre- Vatican Theology

 There is a separation / dichotomy between the earthly / temporal life and the eternal life (life
after death). Eternal life is viewed as the authentic life and the earthly life is seen as a stage-
setting where people are put to the test so that their eternal destiny might be decided.
 The other conception was that the Church is the only way to heaven. ‘Outside the Church,
there is no salvation’. It is either to heaven through baptism or to hell without it.
Two insights from the Council teachings have had influence in moral theology
Lumen Gentium Chapter V entitled ‘The Call of the Whole Church to Holiness’ explicitly
affirms that all Christians (secular and religious) are called to ‘fullness of Christian life and to
the perfection of charity’, and one and the same holiness is cultivated by all who are moved
by the Spirit of God. (LG#39,40).
Gaudium Et Spes # 1 (Pastoral Constitution of the Church in the Modern World),
expressed its conviction of the solidarity of the Church with the whole of humanity.
The Church is a community, which realizes that it is truly and intimately linked with
humankind and its history
Need of renewal for moral theology

The renewal of moral theology has radically changed the manualist focus of an isolated,
individualistic, act-centered, and sin-oriented approach to morality and the moral life. We
can summarize the chief aspects of the renewal of theology in Vatican II. It will be or
have:
Christocentric and related to the history of salvation.
Rooted in the interior life of God, theological virtues, and open to love of God
flowing from Trinity
The primacy of charity
The vocation to sanctity is universal, not elitist
Nourished by a deeper dependence on Scripture
Historical development is to be presented
An anthropological dimension is needed
We must abandon casuistry and domination of sin
We must remain under the guidance of the magisterium of the Church, not of the
press. While Saint Thomas remains as the guardian in theology.
Second Vatican Council and Renewal of Moral Theology
No specific document on moral theology in Vat II

Document that never saw the light
 Vatican II inspired renewal in all aspects of the Church’s life, so also in morals.
Vatican II did not give us a specific text on moral theology. Among the documents
prepared for the Council, there was a proposed constitution on the moral order
(written by an SJ, OP, and OFM). It was negative, assailing problems like
subjectivism. It contrasted the problems with the universal moral law, expressed
doubts about the primacy of charity in the moral law, pointed to the difference
between the moral life and the spiritual life and was rejected. Why wasn’t it
replaced? Some historians claim that the major documents were proceeded by
great theological movements in ecclesiology and patrology. In moral theology, the
development before the council was minimal. There were also many specialists in
other fields in the Council, and few moralists.
New trends in post Vatican Moral Theology after Vat II
Moral theology founded on Sacred Scripture

One important new area was the introduction of Scripture into moral
theology. In his 1943 encyclical letter, Divino afflante spiritu, Pope
Pius XII emphasized the need to bring Scripture into all theological
disciplines. In partial reaction to Martin Luther's cry sola scriptura,
Roman Catholicism, from the time of the Counter Reformation
forward, kept Biblical study within the control of the clergy and, for
the most part, out of the hands of the laity, while always
acknowledging the importance and centrality of Scripture.
Tradition, as exemplified in the work of Thomas Aquinas, was the

primary base for theological study, including moral theology. After
Vatican II, moral theology itself became more integrated into the
whole fabric of Catholic theological discourse. Additionally, the post-
Vatican II period has shown how other disciplines, such as
theological anthropology (grace), eschatology, and Christology, have
influenced moral decision-making.
Pluralism of philosophical foundations for moral theology
Another significant post-Vatican II premise associated with moral theology is the new trend
toward pluralism of philosophical foundations for moral theology. In 1879, Pope Leo XIII issued
Aeterni Patris, an encyclical letter that mandated that Thomism, the teaching of St. Thomas
Aquinas, be the exclusive philosophical base for theological study. After Vatican II it became
common to go beyond the teaching of Thomas in philosophical and consequently theological
dialogue. This movement away from an exclusive Thomistic perspective created a new
emphasis on the individual over the community in theological studies. This led to a life-
centered moral theology with greater emphasis on the person, yet not without criticism from
many within the church.
A pluralistic understanding of philosophies essential to theological study leads directly to the

concept of dialogue in moral theology, a contemporary norm that is probably the most
significant shift in this discipline after Vatican II. This dialogue takes place on at least two
important fronts. First, moral theology must be in dialogue with other sciences, religions, and
philosophies. Second, in the minds of many contemporary scholars, there is no one way to
approach moral theology; the discipline has become pluralistic in study and by extension in
action, as revealed in the daily moral decisions Catholics make. Additionally, such pluralism
has placed strains on magisterial teaching authority and accentuated the role of dissent on
numerous contemporary issues, especially those associated with sexual morals.
History of moral theology
Post Vat II Moral Theology

Humanae vitae (1968) and its impact o moral relection
After Vatican II Humanae vitae (1968) especially Its ruling on
contraception and conjugal act has had ever wider
repercussions on moral theology. it taught that marital love
being a divine institution requires responsible parenthood in
which sexual union is open to procreation. It forbids any form
of artificial means of birth control but rather that, ‘God has
wisely disposed natural laws and rhythms of fecundity which,
of themselves, space the succession of births. From this
teaching emerged:
Heated discussion on sexual morality, marriage and family, the
role of natural law argumentation, the contribution of behavioural
sciences to moral reasoning, the nature of moral norms and the
role of the teaching authority of the Church, the exercise of
personal conscience and the right to dissent.
History of moral theology
Moral Theology in our Modern Times
Humane Vitae and the Dissent
The encyclical of Pope Paul VI Humane Vitae raised division among theologians
that had embarked on the call by Vatican II to the renewal of moral theology from
legalism and moral theology of manuals.
The Dissent rested not just on contraception but also on the methodological
approach to moral theology as a whole, between specific moral judgment of acts in
itself and the suspension of moral judgment on particular acts until more information
is gathered about the intention of the person acting, and the circumstance.
On the promulgation of the encyclical, dissent marked the response of many
theologians. Bernard Haring for example, speaking shortly after its appearance
says, “unless the reaction to the whole church immediately makes him(Paul VI)
realize that he has chosen the wrong advisors and that the arguments which
these men have recommended as highly suitable for modern thought are
simply unacceptable.” This captures his reaction to the encyclical. He and many
others taught that the teaching of pope on contraception within marriage was harsh.
We can understand the origin of this reaction. It stemmed from the Pope Paul VI
ignoring of the majority report and the committee of researchers that advised
 Proportionalism:
 The “revisionist” moral theory known as proportionalism arose, in

some respects, as a result of the efforts to justify contraception and
of secularizing trends common in the Church and world, and,
moreover, as a response to the call for renewing moral theology.
Among proportionalism’s chief features, two stand out:
 (1) its claim that one can intend a “pre-moral” evil for the sake of a
greater “pre-moral” good and
 (2) its resulting rejection of specific moral norms prohibiting always
and everywhere human actions intrinsically evil by reason of the
“objects” chosen.
 (Louis Janssens (1908-2001), the German Jesuit Joseph Fuchs (1912-
2005), and the American Jesuit Richard McCormick (1922-2000), Curran,
who, although not a proportionalist himself, was sympathetic to its
concerns and based his own dissent on this issue and many others, e.g.
abortion and homosexuality, on a “theology of compromise.”
Moral Theology After VAT II
 The new natural law theory critics of proportionalism
 Since Peter Knauer, S.J.’s reformulation of the principle of

double-effect in the mid 1960’s, which has been widely thought
to formally initiate proportionalism.
 the theory has been met with intense criticism. A school of moral
theology associated with the American layman and
philosophical theologian Germain Grisez and composed of
philosophically-trained scholars such as the Australian John
Finnis, and the Americans Joseph Boyle, William E. May, Robert
P. George, and Patrick Lee has developed many powerful
arguments against proportionalism.
 Veritatis Splendor: The intention to write an encyclical (Veritatis Splendor) to treat

more fully and deeply issues regarding the foundations of moral theology was
announced by Pope John Paul II in 1986 in an apostolic letter Spiritus Domini
of August 1987 issued to mark the second centenary of the death of St.
Alphonsus Marie de Liguori.
 Six years down the line, on August 1993 the official text of Veritatis Splendor
(Splendor of the Truth) was promulgated. The question that this may raise having
seen the background would be; for what purposes was it written? Was it meant to
reaffirm the teaching on contraception and birth control? The reasons are far
beyond these two. It must be said that prior to this, what proportionalism was doing
to the discipline of moral theology was unimaginable. The call to renew moral
theology was at the extreme that certain teachings were on the verge of being
thrown out.
 Veritatis splendor was a watershed in Catholic moral theology. It is only in terms of
Veritatis splendor that we may begin to speak of "schools of moral theology" in
accord with the magisterium since Vatican II, because the encyclical clearly
articulated that consequetialist, proportionalist, and teleological theories confuse
the true telos, or ultimate end of man, which is union with God wherein man finds
happiness (nn. 71-83). Moreover, the means to that end is obedience to the
natural law of God known by reason and augmented by divine revelation (nn.
28-53).
 Thomism and the virtues: Another promising movement in recent Catholic

moral theology is that of virtue theory, stimulated in part by philosophers such
as the Irish convert, Alasdair McIntyre. Dissatisfied by various revisionist moral
theories as well as by the alleged Kantian leanings of the Grisez school,
theologians such as the American Dominicans Benedict Ashley and Romanus
Cessario, and the Belgian Dominican Servais Pinckaers have written texts
whose inspiration is the Thomistic framework of the three theological and four
moral virtues. Conscious of the Council’s call to nourish moral theology on the
Bible, these authors have also been concerned to root their moral theology in
God’s revealed word. Also inspired by St. Thomas would be the Italian priest
and now bishop Carlo Caffarra and the Opus Dei priest Ramon García de
Haró.
 Moral theology and spirituality: The work of the American Redemptorist Dennis
J. Billy and the American layman James F. Keating , separately and together,
has focused on the integration of moral theology and spirituality and also
merits attention here. While these authors are not, strictly speaking, Thomists,
they have contributed to the discourse on current moral method and content by
highlighting the spiritual nature of moral conversion in the context of the
virtues, conscience formation, prayer, Eucharistic living, and the parish as the
primary locus of moral formation.
Moral theology in African Context

A MAJOR CONCERN in contemporary African Catholic theology in
INCULTURATION. In fact, Ecclesia in Africa, John Paul II's exhortation on
the church in Africa, considers inculturation "one of the greatest challenges
for the church on the Continent on the eve of the Third Millennium."
The insistence on inculturation is to a considerable extent motivated by
what Africans perceive to be a situation of imbalance in the contact
between Africa and the Christianity introduced into Africa by Western
missionaries. In the words of one prominent African theologian Laurenti
Magesa (a moral theologian), "contact between Christianity and African
traditional religion has historically been predominantly a monologue,
bedeviled by assumptions prejudicial to the latter, with Christianity culturally
more vocal and ideologically more aggressive."
The insistent call for inculturation is therefore also a call for dialogue
among the African worldview, the gospel, and other forms of Christianity
from the Northern Hemisphere, Catholic and non-Catholic that make up the
world church.
Moral theology in African Context
 All branches of theology in Africa have attempted work on inculturation in

general.
 In moral theology Since Second Vatican Council in Africa considerable work
done has been done in the area of social, sexual and marriage ethics. few
scholars treat fundamental moral theology.
 Two of the few African moral theologians who have worked extensively on the
method and foundations of an African moral theology is Benezet Bujo and
Laurenti Magesa.
 Benezet Bujo has insisted on trying to articulate the foundations of an African
ethics that is also Christian. According to Bujo, African traditional ethics is
based on a relational network that is simultaneously anthropocentric, cosmic,
and theocentric. The list of Bujo's publications is long. His most mature insights
on methodological and foundational questions in African ethics are found in
The Ethical Dimension of Community: The African Model and the Dialogue
between North and South; Foundations of An African Ethic: Beyond The
Universal Claims of Western Morality; and "Differentiations in African Ethics" in
The Blackwell Companion to Religious Ethics

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FUNDAMENTAL MORAL

By. Rev DR. David K. Mbugua OFMCap

 This course explores fundamental concepts, values, principle and patterns of

 Since moral theology is fundamentally a discipline of practical reasoning: these

Aim of the Course:

 The aim of this course is to help the student construct a theological

 The student will be able to demonstrate an ability to articulate a

Outline Part one

 Nature and Function and context of morality

Fundamental = serving as, or being an essential part of, a foundation or basis;

 is basis of moral thinking and judgment.

prolegomena to special moral theology prolegomena (plural of

Even before Socrates, Greek philosophers there were attempt to

What is morality? What are the different approaches

Moralityderives from the Latin moralis meaning customs or manners.

similarity and differences of morality with other non moral

 What is philosophy and ethics’ relationship to it? Philosophy –

 Ethics seeks wisdom by asking about right and wrong, good

 Philosophical ethics is the study of what makes something

Who is morally responsible? Should only human beings be held morally

Human person as moral Being is Characterized by

Most people agree in condemning certain action like genocide,

Human being as moral agent Make value judgment

We have little hesitation lauding or praising certain action as values:

It is also evident that sometimes we make mistakes. What we thought

What is this extraordinary ability we have to know good from evil, to

Morality may be applied to four areas proper to

 The scientific or descriptive:

 This approach emphasizes the observation of human

 Systematic investigation of moral standards (norms and

 What actions and decisions are right or wrong from an

 A metaethicist is committed to the analysis of the language, concepts

 Metaethics = The study of ethical terms, statements and judgements. •

 Where does morality come from?

Values are Framework of making moral decision

 Value systems provide a framework for judging the moral

 Morality can be considered as having a subjective or

The philosopher Immanuel Kant was its greatest

However, in the complexity of human, historical existence, one must

2. Universal consequentialism: One takes into account how the

 The English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) proposed

 The utilitarian characterizes behavior as ethical when it does the

 According to Fletcher, a Roman Catholic woman will have been taught

GOD THE MORALITY OF HONOR BASIS = THE WILL

Man realizes that he lives in a created, ordered world – by God

Natural Order - speculative reason

People physically according to the laws of

THE SOCIAL - MORAL ORDER IS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED.

People No social morality: Everyone must construct his own personal

 Moral theology, or Christian ethics, is concerned with God's

 "Moral theology, as I understand it, is not concerned

 Its basic task and purpose is to gain the right vision, to

 He conceived of Christian ethics to be the effort of the Christian community to criticize

 Veritatis Splendor says it’s a reflection concerned with

 A systematic cognitive effort to discover who we are and

The Basics of Greek philosophy

A second aspect of philosophy is epistemology. Epistemology is

Again, the Greeks outlined two opposing approaches to the problem

 The third aspect of philosophy that we will be concerned with is ethics.

Sophists as agents of change and as inquirers into the nature of

 The Sophists GOOD was a matter of personal decision

 Fourth century BC to the third century AD: Stoicism: The