Fundamentals of Electricity

Fundamentals of
ELECTRICITY
Fundamentals of ELECTRICITY
BACKGROUND
Our universe is composed of matter, which is anything

that has mass and occupies space. All matter is made
from slightly over 100 individual components called
elements . The smallest particle that an element can be
broken into and still retain the properties of that element is
known as an atom. SEE FIGURE 1
FIGURE 1 In an atom (left), electrons orbit protons in the

nucleus just as planets orbit the sun in our solar system
(right).
Electricity is the movement of electrons

from one atom to another. The dense
center of each atom is called the nucleus.
The nucleus contains:
• Protons , which have a positive charge

• Neutrons , which are electrically neutral
(have no charge)
Electrons, which have a negative charge, surround the nucleus

in orbits. Each atom contains an equal number of electrons and
protons. The physical aspect of all protons, electrons, and
neutrons are the same for all atoms. It is the number of electrons
and protons in the atom that determines the material and how
electricity is conducted. Because the number of negative-charged
electrons is balanced with the same number of positive-charged
protons, an atom has a neutral charge (no charge).
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGES
The parts of the atom have different charges. The orbiting

electrons are negatively charged, while the protons are
positively charged. Positive charges are indicated by the
“plus” sign (+), and negative charges by the “minus” sign
(-), as shown in FIGURE 2 .
FIGURE 2
The nucleus of an atom has a

positive (+) charge and the
surrounding electrons have a
negative (-) charge.
These same (+) and (-) signs are used to

identify parts of an electrical circuit.
Neutrons have no charge at all. They are
neutral. In a normal, or balanced, atom, the
number of negative particles equals
the number of positive particles. That is,
there are as many electrons as there are
protons. SEE FIGURE 3 .
FIGURE 3 This figure shows a
balanced atom. The number of
electrons is the same as the number of
protons in the nucleus.
CONDUCTORS
Conductors are materials with fewer

than four electrons in their atom’s
outer orbit. see figure 4 .
Figure 4
A conductor is any element that has
one to three electrons in its outer orbit.
CONDUCTORS
Copper is an excellent conductor
because it has only one electron in its
outer orbit. This orbit is far enough
away from the nucleus of the copper
atom that the pull or force holding the
outermost electron in orbit is relatively
weak. See Figure 5 .
FIGURE 5: Copper is an excellent conductor of
electricity because it has just one electron in its outer
orbit, making it easy to be knocked out of its orbit and
flow to other nearby atoms. This causes electron flow,
which is the definition of electricity.
Copper is the conductor most used in

vehicles because the price of copper is
reasonable compared to the relative
cost of other conductors with similar
properties. Examples of other
commonly used conductors include:
• Silver
• Gold
• Aluminum
• Steel
• Cast iron
INSULATORS
Some materials hold their electrons very tightly; therefore,
electrons do not move through them very well. These materials are
called insulators. Insulators are materials with more than four
electrons in their atom’s outer orbit. Because they have more than
four electrons in their outer orbit, it becomes easier for these
materials to acquire (gain) electrons than to release electrons.
Examples of insulators include:

• Rubber
• Plastic
• Nylon
• Porcelain
• Ceramic
• Fiberglass
Examples of insulators include plastics, wood, glass, rubber,

ceramics (spark plugs), and varnish for covering (insulating)
copper wires in alternators and starters.
HOW ELECTRONS MOVE THROUGH A CONDUCTOR?
Figure 6: Current electricity is the movement of electrons

through a conductor.
CONVENTIONAL THEORY VERSUS

ELECTRON THEORY
Conventional theory. It was once thought that

electricity had only one charge and moved from positive
to negative. This theory of the flow of electricity
through a conductor is called the conventional theory
of current flow. See Figure 7 .
Electron theory. The discovery of the electron and its

negative charge led to the electron theory, which states FIGURE 7 Conventional theory states that
that there is electron flow from negative to positive. current flows through a circuit from positive (+)
to negative (-). Automotive electricity uses the
Most automotive applications use the conventional conventional theory in all electrical diagrams
theory. and schematics.
UNITS OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity is measured using meters or other test equipment.
The three fundamentals of electricity-related units include the
ampere, volt, and ohm.
AMPERES
The ampere is the unit used throughout the world to measure current
flow. When 6.28 billion billion electrons (the name for this large number of
electrons is a coulomb ) move past a certain point in 1 second, this
represents 1 ampere of current. See Figure.
The ampere is the electrical unit for the amount of electron flow, just as
“gallons per minute” is the unit that can be used to measure the quantity of
water flow. It is named for the French electrician, Andre Marie Ampere
(1775–1836).
AMPERES
The conventional abbreviations and measurement for amperes are
as follows:
1. The ampere is the unit of measurement for the amount of
current flow.
2. A and amps are acceptable abbreviations for amperes .
3. The capital letter I , for intensity , is used in mathematical
calculations to represent amperes.
4. Amperes do the actual work in the circuit. It is the actual
movement of the electrons through a light bulb or motor that
actually makes the electrical device work. Without amperage
through a device it will not work at all.
5. Amperes are measured by an ammeter (not ampmeter).
AMPERES
Figure 8: An ammeter is installed in the path of the electrons similar to

a water meter used to measure the flow of water in gallons per minute.
The ammeter displays current flow in amperes.
VOLTS
The volt is the unit of measurement for electrical pressure. It is
named for an Italian physicist, Alessandro Volta (1745–1827). The
comparable unit using water pressure as an example would be pounds
per square inch (psi). It is possible to have very high pressures (volts)
and low water flow (amperes). It is also possible to have high water
flow (amperes) and low pressures (volts). Voltage is also called
electrical potential, because if there is voltage present in a conductor,
there is a potential (possibility) for current flow. This electrical
pressure is a result of the following:
VOLTS
• Excess electrons remain at one end of the wire or circuit.
• There is a lack of electrons at the other end of the wire or circuit.
• The natural effect is to equalize this imbalance, creating a pressure to
allow the movement of electrons through a conductor. It is possible to have
pressure (volts) without any flow (amperes). For example, a fully charged
12 volt battery sitting on a workbench has 12 volts of pressure potential,
but because there is not a conductor (circuit) connected between the
positive and negative posts of the battery, there is no flow (amperes).
Current will only flow when there is pressure and a circuit for the electrons
to flow in order to “equalize” to a balanced state.
Voltage does not flow through conductors, but voltage does cause current (in
amperes) to flow through conductors. See figure 9.
FIGURE 9: Voltage is the electrical pressure that causes

the electrons to flow through a conductor.
The conventional abbreviations and measurement for voltage

are as follows:
1. The volt is the unit of measurement for the amount of electrical
pressure.
2. Electromotive force, abbreviated EMF, is another way of indicating
voltage.
3. V is the generally accepted abbreviation for volts .
4. The symbol used in calculations is E , For electromotive force .
5. Volts are measured by a voltmeter. See figure 10 .
FIGURE 10:
This digital multimeter set to
read DC volts is being used to
test the voltage of a vehicle
battery. Most multimeters can
also measure resistance (ohms)
and current flow (amperes).
OHMS
Resistance to the flow of current through a conductor is

measured in units called ohms, named after the German
physicist, George Simon Ohm (1787–1854). The resistance to
the flow of free electrons through a conductor results from the
countless collisions the electrons cause within the atoms of the
conductor. See Figure 11.
OHMS
The conventional abbreviations and measurement for resistance
are as follows:
1. The ohm is the unit of measurement for electrical resistance.
2. The symbol for ohms is Ω (Greek capital letter omega), the last
letter of the Greek alphabet.
3. The symbol used in calculations is R , for resistance .
4. Ohms are measured by an ohmmeter.
5. Resistance to electron flow depends on the material used as a
conductor.
FIGURE 11 Resistance to the flow of electrons through a

conductor is measured in ohms.
WATTS
A watt is the electrical unit for power, the capacity to do work. It is

named after a Scottish inventor, James Watt (1736–1819). The
symbol for power is P . Electrical power is calculated as amperes
times volts:
P (power) = I (amperes) E (volts)

WATTS
The formula can also be used to calculate the amperage
if the wattage and the voltage are known.
For example, a 100 watt light bulb powered by 120 volts

AC in the shop requires how many amperes?
A (amperes) P (watts) divided by E (volts)

A 0.83 amperes
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
FRICTION
When certain different materials are rubbed together, the
friction causes electrons to be transformed from one to the
other. Both materials become electrically charged. These
charges are not in motion, but stay on the surface where they
were deposited. Because the charges are stationary, or static,
this type of voltage is called static electricity.
HEAT
When pieces of two different metals are joined together at
both ends and one junction is heated, current passes through
the metals. The current is very small, only millionths of an
ampere, but this is enough to use in a temperature-measuring
device called a thermocouple. See figure 12 .
Some engine temperature sensors operate in this manner. This
form of voltage is called thermoelectricity.
FIGURE 12: Electron flow is produced by heating the

connection of two different metals.
LIGHT In 1839, Edmond Becquerel noticed that by shining a beam of

sunlight over two different liquids, he could develop an electric
current. When certain metals are exposed to light, some of the
light energy is transferred to the free electrons of the metal. This
excess energy breaks the electrons loose from the surface of the
metal. They can then be collected and made to flow in a
conductor. See figure 15
This photo-electricity is widely used in light-measuring devices

such as photographic exposure meters and automatic headlamp
dimmers.
FIGURE 15: Electron flow is produced by light

striking a light sensitive material.
PRESSURE The first experimental demonstration of a connection

between the generation of a voltage due to pressure applied to
a crystal was published in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie.
Their experiment consisted of voltage being produced when
prepared crystals, such as quartz, topaz, and Rochelle salt,
had a force applied. see figure 16 .
This current is used in crystal microphones, underwater
hydrophones, and certain stethoscopes. The voltage created is
called piezoelectricity. A gas grille igniter uses the principle
of piezoelectricity to produce a spark, and engine knock
sensor (KS) use piezoelectricity to create a voltage signal for
use as an input as an engine computer input signal.
FIGURE 16: Electron flow is produced by pressure

on certain crystals.
CHEMICAL
Two different materials (usually metals) placed
in a conducting and reactive chemical solution
create a difference in potential, or voltage,
between them. This principle is called
electrochemistry and is the basis of the
automotive battery.
MAGNETISM
Electricity can be produced if a conductor is moved
through a magnetic field or a moving magnetic field
is moved near a conductor. This is the principle of
how many automotive devices work, including:
 Starter motor
 Alternator
 Ignition coils
 Solenoids and relays
CONDUCTORS
and
RESISTANCE
All conductors have some resistance to current flow. The following are principles of
conductors and their resistance.
If the conductor length is doubled, its resistance doubles. This is the

reason why battery cables are designed to be as short as possible.
If the conductor diameter is increased, its resistance is reduced. This is

the reason starter motor cables are larger in diameter than other wiring in the
vehicle.
As the temperature increases, the resistance of the conductor also

increases. This is the reason for installing heat shields on some starter motors.
The heat shield helps to protect the conductors (copper wiring inside the starter)
from excessive engine heat and so reduces the resistance of starter circuits.
Because a conductor increases in resistance with increased temperature, the
conductor is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) resistor.
RESISTORS
Resistance is the opposition to current flow. Resistors
represent an electrical load, or resistance, to current flow. Most
electrical and electronic devices use resistors of specific values
to limit and control the flow of current. Resistors can be made
from carbon or from other materials that restrict the flow of
electricity and are available in various sizes and resistance
values. Most resistors have a series of painted color bands
around them. These color bands are coded to indicate the
degree of resistance. SEE FIGURES 17 AND 18 .
FIGURE 17: This figure shows a resistor color-code interpretation.

FIGURE 18 - A typical carbon resistor.

SERIES CIRCUITS
A series circuit is a complete circuit that has more than one

electrical load where all of the current has only one path to flow
through all of the loads. Electrical components such as fuses
and switches are generally not considered to be included in the
determination of a series circuit. The circuit must be continuous
or have continuity in order for current to flow through the
circuit.
OHM’S LAW AND SERIES CIRCUITS

As explained earlier, a series circuit is a circuit containing
more than one resistance in which all current must flow
through all resistances in the circuit. Ohm’s law can be used to
calculate the value of one unknown (voltage, resistance, or
amperes) if the other two values are known. Because all
current flows through all resistances, the total resistance is the
sum (addition) of all resistances. SEE FIGURE 1.
FIGURE 1:
A series circuit with three bulbs. All
current flows through all resistances
(bulbs). The total resistance of the
circuit is the sum of the total
resistance of the bulbs, and the bulbs
will light dimly because of the
increased resistance and the
reduction of current flow (amperes)
through the circuit.
SERIES CIRCUIT LAWS

SERIES CIRCUIT LAWS

LAW 1
The total resistance in a series circuit is the sum total of the
individual resistances. The resistance values of each electrical
load are simply added together.
LAW 2
The current is constant throughout the entire circuit.
LAW 3
Although the current (in amperes) is constant, the voltage drops
across each resistance in the circuit. The voltage drop across
each load is proportional to the value of the resistance
compared to the total resistance.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Parallel circuit is a complete circuit that has more

than one path for the current. The separate paths which
split and meet at junction points are called branches,
legs, or shunts. The current flow through each branch or
leg varies depending on the resistance in that branch. A
break or open in one leg or section of a parallel circuit
does not stop the current flow through the remaining legs
of the parallel circuit.
KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
Kirchhoff’s current law (his first law) states:
The current flowing into any junction of an electrical circuit

is equal to the current flowing out of that junction.
LAW 1
PARALLEL CIRCUIT LAWS
The total resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than that of the smallest-
resistance leg. This occurs because not all of the current flows through each leg or
branch. With many branches, more current can flow from the battery just as more
vehicles can travel on a road with five lanes compared to a road with only one or two
lanes.
LAW 2
The voltage is the same for each leg of a parallel circuit.
LAW 3
The sum of the individual currents in each leg will equal the total current. The amount
of current flow through a parallel circuit may vary for each leg depending on the
resistance of that leg. The current flowing through each leg results in the same
voltage drop (from the power side to the ground side) as for every other leg of the
circuit.

Fundamentals of Electricity

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Fundamentals of

Our universe is composed of matter, which is anything

FIGURE 1 In an atom (left), electrons orbit protons in the

Electricity is the movement of electrons

• Protons , which have a positive charge

Electrons, which have a negative charge, surround the nucleus

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CHARGES

The parts of the atom have different charges. The orbiting

The nucleus of an atom has a

These same (+) and (-) signs are used to

Conductors are materials with fewer

Copper is the conductor most used in

Examples of insulators include:

Examples of insulators include plastics, wood, glass, rubber,

HOW ELECTRONS MOVE THROUGH A CONDUCTOR?

Figure 6: Current electricity is the movement of electrons

CONVENTIONAL THEORY VERSUS

Conventional theory. It was once thought that

Electron theory. The discovery of the electron and its

Figure 8: An ammeter is installed in the path of the electrons similar to

FIGURE 9: Voltage is the electrical pressure that causes

The conventional abbreviations and measurement for voltage

Resistance to the flow of current through a conductor is

FIGURE 11 Resistance to the flow of electrons through a

A watt is the electrical unit for power, the capacity to do work. It is

P (power) = I (amperes) E (volts)

For example, a 100 watt light bulb powered by 120 volts

A (amperes) P (watts) divided by E (volts)

FIGURE 12: Electron flow is produced by heating the

LIGHT In 1839, Edmond Becquerel noticed that by shining a beam of

This photo-electricity is widely used in light-measuring devices

FIGURE 15: Electron flow is produced by light

PRESSURE The first experimental demonstration of a connection

FIGURE 16: Electron flow is produced by pressure

If the conductor length is doubled, its resistance doubles. This is the

If the conductor diameter is increased, its resistance is reduced. This is

As the temperature increases, the resistance of the conductor also

FIGURE 17: This figure shows a resistor color-code interpretation.

FIGURE 18 - A typical carbon resistor.

A series circuit is a complete circuit that has more than one

OHM’S LAW AND SERIES CIRCUITS

SERIES CIRCUIT LAWS

SERIES CIRCUIT LAWS

Parallel circuit is a complete circuit that has more

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

Kirchhoff’s current law (his first law) states:

The current flowing into any junction of an electrical circuit

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