Basic Aerodynamic & V-n

Diagram

Priyaranjan Pradhan/Seetharaman Ramalingam

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Overview

•Basic Aerodynamic
•Flight Load Factor
•Flight Maneuver
•Design Air Speeds
•Maneuvering Envelop
•Gust & Turbulence
•Gust Envelop
•Combined Limit Envelop
•Limit, Ultimate & Factor of Safety

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 Basic Aerodynamic

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Basic Aerodynamic

Cambered aerofoil

Sketch of a wing and aerofoil Symmetrical aerofoil

The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile NACA 2412
by maximum camber of 2% located 40% (0.4
•One digit describing maximum camber as percentage chords) from the leading edge with a
of the chord. maximum thickness of 12% of the chord
•One digit describing the distance of maximum
camber from the airfoil leading edge in tens of
percents of the chord.
•Two digits describing maximum thickness of the
4 airfoil as percent of the chord. © 2010 Wipro Ltd - Confidential
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Q:How is Lift Produced ?
A: Bernoulli’s Principal

 Air moving over the top of the wing has a higher velocity
locally than the air on the bottom
 The Bernoulli Principle prescribes:
– Higher velocity locally = Lower pressure locally
– Lower velocity locally = Higher pressure locally
 The resulting pressure difference causes a force that pushes
up on the wing (aka lift)

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Angle of attack and Variation of Pressure Profile

• At negative angle lower & upper

surface both experiences negative
pressure except small region near
leading edge , as a result aerofoil
experiences negative lift
• At small positive angle of attack
positive lower surface pressure and
negative upper surface pressure both
contributes lift
•As angle of attack increases aerofoil
will continue to produce higher lift until
stalling angle where flow separation
occurs leading to loss of lift

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Basic Aerodynamic(Contd:-)

 Lift is defined as a force normal to the relative wind

 Drag is a force parallel to the relative wind, and here is a "by-product"
of producing lift
CL= Lift coefficient CD= Drag coefficient

1 1
L  CL V S D  CD V S
2 2

2 2
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Basic Aerodynamic(Contd:-)

Cl Cd vs α Curve

dCL
Slope of lift curve=
d

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Drag

Types of drag are generally divided into the following

categories:
• Parasite Drag, consisting of
1. Form Drag
2. Skin Friction Drag
3. Interference Drag

• Lift-Induced Drag, and

• Wave drag

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Flight Load factor
• Flight load factors represent the ratio of the aerodynamic force
component (acting normal to the assumed longitudinal axis of the
airplane) to the weight of the airplane.
• A positive flight load factor is one in which the aerodynamic force
acts upward, with respect to the airplane.

L
n
W
Where n = Flight Load factor
L = Lift Force
W = Weight Force

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Flight Maneuver

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Equilibrium Maneuver

L cos   W
L W L  W  ma  0 L  W cos L  W cos
V 2

T D T  D  W sin  V L sin   m  0
2
a m 0
L  W (1  ) r
n 1 g n  cos  1 r
V 
2

a T  D  W sin    tan  
1

n  1  r 
g V2

n  cos   m 1
r n 1
cos 
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Design Speeds

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Maneuvering envelop
The envelope is defined by the design cruise speed V C, design dive speed V D ,the positive and negative stall curves
(given by the maximum normal force coefficient (C Nmax) ―The airplane is assumed to be subjected to maneuvers
resulting in the following limit load factors:
• The positive maneuvering load factor specified in §FAR 23.337 at speeds up to VD
• The negative maneuvering load factor specified in §FAR 23.337 at VC
• Factors varying linearly with speed from the specified value at VC to 0.0 at VD for the normal and commuter
category, and −1.0 at VD for the acrobatic and utility categories.
• The positive stall curve defines how the load factor that can be developed is limited
by stall, so on the stall boundary 1
L  nW   V 2 S C 0 EAS W N max
2
 0 SW C N max
n V 2 EAS
2W
§ FAR 23.337
(a) The positive limit maneuvering load factor n may not be
less than—
(1) 2.1+(24,000÷(W+10,000)) for normal and commuter
category airplanes, where W=design maximum takeoff
weight, except that n need not be more than 3.8;
(2) 4.4 for utility category airplanes; or
(3) 6.0 for acrobatic category airplanes.
(b) The negative limit maneuvering load factor may not be
less than—
(1) 0.4 times the positive load factor for the normal utility
and commuter categories; or
(2) 0.5 times the positive load factor for the acrobatic
category.
© Maneuvering load lower than those specified in this section
may be used if the airplane has design feature that makes it
impossible to exceed these in flight
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Simple Example to construct Maneuvering
Envelop

W=88000lbs 1
L  nW   0V 2 EAS SW C N max
Alt 10000ft 2
Vc=325 KEAS  0 SW C N max 2
n V EAS
Vd=400 KEAS 2W

S=1200 ft2

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Gust & Turbulence

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Gust Load factor

VC LVgu
n  1
2W / S
n increases with Vgu and flight velocity V

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Gust Load Factor & Envelope (FAR Specified)

  FAR Specified Gust Velocities (ft/s)

  20000ft & Below 50000ft & Above
Gust Velocities at Vb 66 38
Gust Velocities at Vc 50 25
Gust Velocities at Vd 25 12.5

Gust velocities between Vc & Vd decreases linearly

from specified value at Vc to the specified value at
Vd
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Simple Example to construct Gust Envelop

W=88000lbs
Alt 10000ft
Vc=325 KEAS
Vd=400 KEAS
S=1200 ft2
a=4.75/rad

 = 198.5/a =41.8 nc=2.65

Kg=0.78 nd=2.02
nb=2.51
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Limit Combined Envelope

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Limit, Ultimate Load, Factor of Safety
Limit Load
•Maximum load anticipated on
the aircraft during it’s service
life
•The aircraft structure should
be capable of supporting the
limit loads without suffering
permanent deformation

Ultimate load
•Ultimate loads (or design loads
are equal to limit loads
multiplied by factor of safety
•Ultimate loads should be
carried by structure without
failure

Factor of Safety
•Ratio of Ultimate load and limit
load

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 Thank You

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