Chapter 6:

Conditioning
and Learning
 Learning: Some Key Terms

• Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior

due to experience
– Does NOT include temporary changes due to
disease, injury, maturation, injury, or drugs, since
these do NOT qualify as learning
 Learning: Some More Key Terms

• Response: Any identifiable behavior

– Internal: Faster heartbeat
– Observable: Eating, scratching
Learning: Two More Key Terms
• Antecedents: Events that
precede a response
• Consequences: Effects that
follow a response

• Antecendents happen
Ahead of response,
Consequences Can follow.

• Response equals
BEHAVIOR (internal,
observable).
• Reinforcement: Any event that increases the
probability that a response will recur
– Lack of response is a response also (opposite)
• Reflex: Automatic, non-learned response
 Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov: Russian
physiologist who initially
was studying digestion
• Used dogs to study
salivation when dogs
were presented with
meat powder
• Also known as
Pavlovian or
Respondent
Conditioning
Figure 7.3
Table 7.1
 Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus causes Response
• Neutral, Unconditioned,
Conditioned
• Something that causes no
response (at first) is Neutral NS
• Unconditioned Stimulus causes
Unconditioned Response US/UR
• Conditioned Stimulus causes
Conditioned Response CS/CR
• Conditioning takes a NS and turns
it into CS/CR by using the NS with
US/UR first.
• Bell…Meat…Drool…Bell…Drool
• NS…US…UR…CS…CR
 Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: Training period when a response

is strengthened
• Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned
stimulus is used to reinforce further learning
• (
• Expectancy: Anticipation concerning future
events or relationships
 More Classical Conditioning Terms

• Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned

response through removal of reinforcement
• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a
learned response following apparent
extinction
Figure 7.4
 More Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Stimulus Generalization: A
tendency to respond to
stimuli that are similar, but
not identical to, a
conditioned stimulus (e.g.,
responding to a buzzer or a
hammer banging when the
conditioning stimulus was a
bell)
• Stimulus Discrimination: The
learned ability to respond
differently to similar stimuli
(e.g., Anya will respond
differently to various bells:
alarms, school, timer)
 Classical Conditioning in Humans

• Conditioned
Emotional Response
(CER): Learned
emotional reaction
to a previously
neutral stimulus
Stimulus Generalization
Phobia: Intense, unrealistic, irrational
fear of a specific situation or object
(e.g., fear of spiders, fear of dark, etc.)
Classical Conditioning in Humans, Cont.
• Desensitization:
Exposing phobic
people gradually to
feared stimuli while
they stay calm and
relaxed
• Gradually, comfort level
increases. Good
strategy for “real life”…
“Feel the fear and do it
anyway”…
 Vicarious Classical Conditioning: Learning to
respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing
another’s emotional reactions

It can be true that

“Children learn what they live.”
l
 Operant Conditioning (Instrumental
Learning)
• Learning based on the
consequences of
responding; we associate
responses with their
consequences
• Law of Effect (Thorndike):
The probability of a response
is altered by the effect it has;
responses that lead to
desired effects are repeated;
those that lead to undesired
effects are not
 More Operant Conditioning Terms

• Operant Reinforcer: Any event that follows a

response and increases its likelihood of
recurring
• Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box):
Apparatus designed to study operant
conditioning in animals
• Response-Contingent Reinforcement:
Reinforcement given only when a particular
response occurs
Skinner Box
Figure 7.9
 Timing of Reinforcement

• Operant reinforcement most effective when

given immediately after a correct response
• Effectiveness of reinforcement is inversely
related to time elapsed after correct response
occurs
• Response Chain: A linked series of actions
that leads to reinforcement
 Timing of Reinforcement (cont.)

• Superstitious Behavior: Behavior that is

repeated to produce reinforcement, even
though it is not necessary
• Shaping: Molding responses gradually in a
step-by-step fashion to a desired pattern
• Successive Approximations: Ever-closer
matches
 Operant Extinction

• Definition: When learned responses that are

NOT reinforced gradually fade away
• Negative Attention Seeking: Using
misbehavior to gain attention
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.12
 More Operant Conditioning Terms

• Positive Reinforcement:
When a response is
followed by a reward or
other positive event
+ something
 Negative Reinforcement is not Punishment
• Negative
Reinforcement: When a
response is followed by
the removal of an
unpleasant event (e.g.,
the bells in Fannie’s car
stop when she puts the
seatbelt on, a loud,
unpleasant alarm is
silenced); ends
discomfort-
- something
 Punishment

• Any event that follows a

response and
decreases the likelihood
of it recurring (e.g., a
spanking)
 Response Cost-Loss of something positive

• Response Cost:
Reinforcer or positive
thing is removed (e.g.,
losing Xbox™
privileges)
Figure 7.1
 Types of Reinforcers
• Primary Reinforcer:
Nonlearned and natural;
satisfies physiological
needs (e.g., food,
water, sex)
More Reinforcer Types
• Secondary Reinforcer:
Learned reinforcer (e.g.,
money, grades,
approval, praise)

• Token Reinforcer:
Tangible secondary
reinforcer (e.g., money,
gold stars, poker chips)
 Social Reinforcer: Provided by other people
(e.g., learned desires for attention and approval)
 Intracranial
Stimulation
(ICS):
Natural primary
reinforcer; involves
direct electrical
activation of
brain’s
“pleasure centers”.
Figure 7.16
 Feedback and Knowledge of Results

• Information about the effect a response had

• Knowledge of Results (KR): Increased
feedback; informational
Las Vegas-a study in the power of partial reinforcement:

• Slots: a human “Skinner Box”

• Imagine two scenarios-
continuous reinforcement, partial
reinforcement. Missing is
incorporated into part of the
response chain, so people don’t
know when to quit, when the
reward is unlikely
• Lever, reward…primary
reinforcer
• Stimulation…secondary
reinforcers (esp. “near misses”)
• Hard to quit for some due to the
partial reinforcement effect
 Programmed Instruction

• Information is presented in small amounts,

gives immediate practice, and provides
continuous feedback-example:
Figure 7.17
 Programmed Instruction, cont.
• Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI): Learning is aided
by computer-presented information and exercises
– Drill and practice
– Instructional games (interest, motivation)
– Educational simulations
 Drill and Practice
• Example-
• http://www.goodtyping.com
 Instructional Games
Many primary and secondary schools use
these now.
Examples-
http://www.hoadworks.com/hoad.htm
http://www.johnthurlow.com
 Educational Simulations
• Example-
• http://www.pbs.org
Figure 7.18
 Virtual curriculum-exciting possibilities!
Learners are ready, shaped by video games, computer use…
 Reinforcement and Stimulus Control
• Again, discoveries “by accident” (so the story
goes)…the value of being mindful of that which
presents itself vs. that which is planned, expected,
sought…
• Schedules of Reinforcement
– Continuous Reinforcement
– Partial Reinforcement
• Highly resistant to extinction –the “partial
reinforcement effect”
Las Vegas-a study in the power of partial reinforcement:

• Slots: a human “Skinner Box”

• Imagine two scenarios-
continuous reinforcement, partial
reinforcement. Missing is
incorporated into part of the
response chain, so people don’t
know when to quit, when the
reward is unlikely
• Lever, reward…primary
reinforcer
• Stimulation…secondary
reinforcers (esp. “near misses”)
• Hard to quit for some due to the
partial reinforcement effect
 Partial Reinforcement

• Reinforcers do NOT follow every response

• Schedules of Reinforcement: Plans for
determining which responses will be
reinforced
• Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcer
follows every correct response
• Partial Reinforcement Effect: Responses
acquired with partial reinforcement are very
resistant to extinction
 Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

• Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): A set number of

correct responses must be made to obtain a
reinforcer very high/resist ex: kids asking?
• Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): Varied number
of correct responses must be made to get a
reinforcer very high/greater resist ex: kids
asking?
 Schedules of Partial Reinforcement (cont.)

• Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): The first correct

response made after a certain amount of
time has elapsed is reinforced-mod/resist ex:
turkey, exams?
• Variable Interval Schedule (VI):
Reinforcement is given for the first correct
response made after a varied amount of time
slow, steady/very resist ex: busy signal?
Figure 7.19
 Stimulus Control
• Stimuli that consistently
precede a rewarded
response tend to
influence when and
where the response will
occur
• “Notice something, do
something, get
something.”
 Stimulus Control (cont.)

• Operant Stimulus Discrimination: Occurs

when one learns to differentiate between
antecedent stimuli that signal either a reward
or a nonreward
• Discriminative Stimuli: Stimuli that precede
reinforced and nonreinforced responses
Punishment

• Punisher: Any
consequence that
reduces the frequency
of a target behavior
 Keys to Punishment and Responses

• Timing
• Consistency
• Intensity
 Punishment Concepts

• Aversive Stimulus:
Stimulus that is
painful or
uncomfortable (e.g.,
a shock)
• Escape Learning: Learning to make a
response to end an aversive stimulus ex:
conversation w/disliked person
• Avoidance Learning: Learning to make a
response in order to postpone or prevent
discomfort
Escape/Avoid Punishment-Supresses Responses
Figure 7.22
 If you must punish, here’s how:

1. Don’t use punishment if

you can discourage
misbehavior in other ways-
Liberal use of positive
reinforcement
Praise positive behavior
Ignore negative behavior
(Extinction)
2. Punish during or
immediately after
misbehavior
-older kids, adults, you
can bridge time by
clearly stating what you
are punishing for
-young kids, animals-don’t
bother, wait til next time
3. DO NOT OVER PUNISH
Use the minimum
punishment necessary to
supress misbehavior-make
the punishment fit the
“crime”
4. Be consistent. Be very
clear. Don’t punish
something one day and not
the next. Caregivers
should try to punish kids for
the same things in the
same way.
Children remember the
“one time” you do or
don’t…
5. Expect anger from the
punished person. Briefly
acknowledge this anger, but
don’t reinforce it. Be willing
to admit your mistake if you
wrongfully punish.
Examples?
6. Punish with patience and
respect, with kindness if
possible. Allow the person
to retain self-respect-don’t
punish in front of others, for
example. A good
relationship minimizes
behavior problems.
7. Be sure to reinforce
positive behaviors!
 Consequences of Physical Punishment:
Effective but HABIT FORMING…and it creates NEW
Behavior Problems:
Fear, Sadness, Aggression…
 Cognitive Learning

• Higher-level learning involving thinking,

knowing, understanding, and anticipating
• Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious
reinforcement and is not demonstrated until
reinforcement is provided
• Rote Learning: Takes place mechanically,
through repetition and memorization, or by
learning a set of rules
• Discovery Learning: Based on insight and
understanding
Figure 7.23
Figure 7.24
 Modeling or Observational Learning (Albert
Bandura)
• Occurs by watching and imitating actions of
another person or by noting consequences of
a person’s actions
– Occurs before direct practice is allowed
• Model: Someone who serves as an example
 Steps to Successful Modeling

• Pay attention to model and remember what

was done
• Reproduce modeled behavior
• If a model is successful or his/her behavior is
rewarded, behavior more likely to recur
• Once response is tried, normal reinforcement
determines whether it will be repeated
• Bandura created modeling theory with classic
Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments
AGGRESSION: Do TV/Video Games promote it?
Figure 7.26
 Effects of TV
• Reading development declined-cc
• Children’s scores on tests of creativity
dropped
• Perceptions of sex roles more stereotyped
• Significant increase in verbal and physical
aggression

• Should the US regulate TV/Video violence

more?
 Self-Managed Behavior:
Freedom from responses,
habits…new possibilities!
 Self-Managed Behavior
• Premack Principle: Any
high frequency
response used to
reinforce a low
frequency response
(e.g., no Halo or GTA
until you finish your
homework)
• Self-Recording: Self-
management based on
keeping records of
response frequencies
A Rewarding Project-Change A Behavior!

• Choose a target
behavior
• Record a baseline
• Establish goals
• Choose reinforcers
• Record your progress
• Reward successes
• Adjust your plan as
your learn more about
your behavior
 How to Break Bad Habits

• Alternate Responses: Try to get the same

reinforcement with a new response
• Extinction: Try to discover what is reinforcing an
unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay the
reinforcement
• Response Chains: Break up the chain of events that
leads to an undesired response
• Cues and Antecedents: Try to avoid, narrow down, or
remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit
 Behavioral Contracting-Get Help
• Behavioral Contract: Formal
agreement stating behaviors
to be changed and
consequences that apply;
written contract
• State a specific problem
behavior you wish to control
or a goal you wish to achieve
• State the rewards you will
get, privileges you will forfeit,
or punishments you will get
• Type the contract, sign it,
and get a person you trust to
sign it