Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Nervous Systems
• Each neuron
– May communicate with thousands of other
neurons
Figure 48.1
Nerve net
Radial
nerve
Nerve
ring
Brain
Nerve
cord
Transverse
nerve
Brain
Longitudinal
nerve cords Ganglia
Brain
Sensory
Spinal
ganglion
cord
(dorsal
nerve
cord)
Sensory input
Integration
Sensor
Motor output
Effector
Figure 48.3 Peripheral nervous Central nervous
system (PNS) system (CNS)
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Sensory neurons transmit information from
sensors
– That detect external stimuli and internal
conditions
Hamstring
muscle 6 The interneurons
inhibit motor neurons
that supply the
Spinal cord hamstring (flexor)
(cross section) muscle. This inhibition
prevents the hamstring
Sensory neuron from contracting,
Motor neuron which would resist
1 The reflex is the action of
Interneuron
initiated by tapping the quadriceps.
the tendon connected
to the quadriceps
Figure 48.4 (extensor) muscle.
Cell body
Nucleus
Synapse
Signal
Axon direction
Axon hillock
Synaptic
Figure 48.5
terminals
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Most neurons have dendrites
– Highly branched extensions that receive
signals from other neurons
Axon
Cell
body
Figure 48.6a–c (a) Sensory neuron (b) Interneurons (c) Motor neuron
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Supporting Cells (Glia)
• Glia are supporting cells
– That are essential for the structural integrity of
the nervous system and for the normal
functioning of neurons
50 µm
Figure 48.7
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and Schwann
cells (in the PNS)
– Are glia that form the myelin sheaths around
the axons of many vertebrate neurons
Node of Ranvier
Layers of myelin
Axon
Schwann
cell Schwann
cell
Nodes of Nucleus of
Axon Myelin sheath
Ranvier Schwann cell
Figure 48.8
0.1 µm
TECHNIQUE A microelectrode is made from a glass capillary tube filled with an electrically conductive
salt solution. One end of the tube tapers to an extremely fine tip (diameter < 1 µm). While looking through a
microscope, the experimenter uses a micropositioner to insert the tip of the microelectrode into a cell. A
voltage recorder (usually an oscilloscope or a computer-based system) measures the voltage between the
microelectrode tip inside the cell and a reference electrode placed in the solution outside the cell.
Microelectrode
–70 mV
Voltage
recorder
Reference
Figure 48.9 electrode
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Resting Potential
• The resting potential
– Is the membrane potential of a neuron that is
not transmitting signals
[Na+] – + [Na+]
15 mM 150 mM
[K+] – + [K+]
150 mM 5 mM
– +
[Cl–] [Cl–]
10 mM – + 120 mM
[A–]
100 mM – +
Plasma
membrane
Figure 48.10
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The concentration of Na+ is higher in the
extracellular fluid than in the cytosol
– While the opposite is true for K+
– +
+ –
150 mM 5 mM 15 mM 150 mM
KCL KCL NaCl NaCl
Cl–
– +
+ –
K+ Na+
– + Cl–
Potassium Sodium + –
Artificial
channel channel
membrane
Figure 48.11a, b (a) Membrane selectively permeable to K+ (b) Membrane selectively permeable to Na+
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• A neuron that is not transmitting signals
– Contains many open K+ channels and fewer
open Na+ channels in its plasma membrane
–50 Threshold
Resting
potential Hyperpolarizations
–100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (msec)
(a) Graded hyperpolarizations
produced by two stimuli that
increase membrane permeability
to K+. The larger stimulus produces
Figure 48.12a a larger hyperpolarization.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Other stimuli trigger a depolarization
– A reduction in the magnitude of the membrane
potential Stimuli
+50
–50 Threshold
Resting Depolarizations
potential
–100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (msec)
(b) Graded depolarizations produced
by two stimuli that increase
membrane permeability to Na+.
The larger stimulus produces a
Figure 48.12b larger depolarization.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Hyperpolarization and depolarization
– Are both called graded potentials because the
magnitude of the change in membrane
potential varies with the strength of the
stimulus
Action
Threshold
–50
Resting
potential
–100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (msec)
(c) Action potential triggered by a
depolarization that reaches the
Figure 48.12c threshold.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• An action potential
– Is a brief all-or-none depolarization of a
neuron’s plasma membrane
– Is the type of signal that carries information
along axons
– – – – – – – – Na+ Na+
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
K+ – – – – – – – –
Membrane potential
Na+ Na+ potential permitting K+ efflux
3 which again makes
+ + + + + + + + 0
the inside of the cell
(mV)
2 4 negative.
Threshold
– – – – – – – – –50
1 5 1
K+
Resting potential
–100
2 Depolarization A stimulus opens the Time
activation gates on some Na+ channels. Na+
influx through those channels depolarizes the
membrane. If the depolarization reaches the Na+ Na+
threshold, it triggers an action potential.
+ + + + + + + +
Extracellular fluid Activation
Potassium gates
Na+
channel
– – – – – – – –
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
K+
Plasma membrane
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – Undershoot
5 Both gates of the Na+ channels
Cytosol are closed, but the activation gates on some K+
Sodium K+ Inactivation
channels are still open. As these gates close on
channel gate
most K+ channels, and the inactivation gates
1 Resting state The activation gates on the Na+ and K+ channels open on Na+ channels, the membrane returns to
Figure 48.13 are closed, and the membrane’s resting potential is maintained. its resting state.
Action
potential
– – + + + + + +
+ ++ – – – – – –
1 An action potential is generated
Na
+ + – – – – – – as Na+ flows inward across the
– – + + + + + + membrane at one location.
Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)
Myelin
sheath
––
–
––
+ –
Cell body ++ +
+ +
++
Axon
–– +
– ++
––
–
Figure 48.15
Synaptic
terminal
of presynaptic
neurons
5 µm
Figure 48.16
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• When an action potential reaches a terminal
– The final result is the release of
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
Postsynaptic cell
Presynaptic
cell
5 Na+
Synaptic vesicles Neuro-
K+
containing transmitter
Presynaptic
neurotransmitter
membrane
Postsynaptic
membrane
Ligand-
gated
Voltage-gated ion channel
Ca2+ channel
1 Ca2+
4 Postsynaptic
2 6
membrane
Synaptic cleft 3
Ligand-gated
Figure 48.17 ion channels
Postsynaptic
neuron E1
Threshold of axon of
Membrane potential (mV)
0 postsynaptic neuron
Resting
potential
–70
E1 E1
(a) Subthreshold, no
summation
Figure 48.18a
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• If two EPSPs are produced in rapid succession
– An effect called temporal summation occurs
E1
Axon
hillock
Action
potential
E1 E1
Figure 48.18b
Action
potential
E1 + E2
E1 I E1 + I
(d) Spatial summation
of EPSP and IPSP
Figure 48.18d
Table 48.1
Figure 48.19
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The brain provides the integrative power
– That underlies the complex behavior of
vertebrates
Gray matter
White
matter
Ventricles
Figure 48.20
Somatic Autonomic
nervous nervous
system system
Figure 48.21
Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Location of Stimulates activity Thoracic Location of
postganglionic neurons: of stomach and postganglionic neurons:
in ganglia close to or intestines Inhibits activity
some in ganglia close to
within target organs of pancreas
target organs; others in
Stimulates activity a chain of ganglia near
of pancreas Stimulates glucose spinal cord
release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Stimulates Lumbar
Neurotransmitter
gallbladder
released by Stimulates Neurotransmitter
postganglionic neurons: adrenal medulla released by
acetylcholine postganglionic neurons:
Promotes emptying norepinephrine
Inhibits emptying
of bladder
of bladder
hindbrain
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Midbrain Hindbrain
Forebrain
embryonic regions
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Diencephalon
Myelencephalon
Spinal cord
Telencephalon
Diencephalon:
Cerebral hemisphere Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Brainstem:
Midbrain
Pons
Pituitary
gland Medulla
oblongata
Spinal cord Cerebellum
Central canal
(c) Adult
Figure 48.23c
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Brainstem
• The brainstem consists of three parts
– The medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain
• The pons
– Also participates in visceral functions
• The midbrain
– Contains centers for the receipt and integration
of several types of sensory information
Eye
Input from ears
Reticular formation
Input from touch,
pain, and temperature
Figure 48.24 receptors
RESULTS 1
When the squirrels
were exposed to a regular light/dark
cycle, their wheel-turning activity 5
Days of experiment
20
12 16 20 24 4 8 12 12 16 20 24 4 8 12
Figure 48.25
Time of day (hr) Time of day (hr)
CONCLUSION The northern flying squirrel’s internal clock can run in constant darkness, but it does so on
its own cycle, which lasts about 24 hours and 21 minutes. External (light) cues keep the clock running on a 24-hour cycle.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Cerebrum
• The cerebrum
– Develops from the embryonic telencephalon
Corpus
callosum
Basal
nuclei
Neocortex
Figure 48.26
• In mammals
– The cerebral cortex has a convoluted surface
called the neocortex
x
rte
x
rte
co
co
ry
so
tor
Somatosensory
en
Mo
Frontal Speech association
tos
association area
ma
Taste
area So
Reading
Speech
Hearing
Visual
Smell association
Auditory area
association
area
Vision
Uppe
Shou
Elb
For
Head
Trunk
Knee
Trunk
Neck
Hip
ow
Leg
ear
r arm
lder
Elb
W
Hip
For
m
ris
Ha
ow
ear
Fin
t
nd
ge
Ha
rs
m
Fin
nd
ge
Th Th rs
um um
Ne b Ey b
Br c k e
ow No
Ey Fa s e
e c
Fac Lip e Genitalia
e Toes T s
ee
Gu th
m
Jaw s
Lips
Jaw Tongue
Tongue
Pharynx
Primary Primary
motor cortex Abdominal somatosensory
organs cortex
Figure 48.28
Hearing Seeing
words words
Min
Speaking Generating
words words
Figure 48.29
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Portions of the frontal lobe, Broca’s area and
Wernicke’s area
– Are essential for the generation and
understanding of language
Prefrontal cortex
Olfactory
bulb
Amygdala Hippocampus
Figure 48.30
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• This limbic system includes three parts of the
cerebral cortex
– The amygdala, hippocampus, and olfactory
bulb
Tail
Head
Developing axon
Growth of motor neuron
cone
Netrin-1
receptor
Netrin-1
receptor
Slit
receptor
Netrin-1
Slit
Cell Netrin-1
Floor Slit
plate adhesion
Slit receptor
molecules
1 Growth toward the floor plate. 2 Growth across the mid-line. 3 No turning back. Netrin-1 and Slit, produced by cells
Cells in the floor plate of the Once the axon reaches the Now the axon synthesizes of the floor plate, bind to receptors
spinal cord release Netrin-1, which floor plate, cell adhesion molecules receptors that bind to Slit, on the axons of motor neurons. In
diffuses away from the floor plate on the axon bind to complementary a repulsion protein re- this case, both proteins act to repel
and binds to receptors on the molecules on floor plate cells, leased by floor plate cells. the axon, directing the motor neuron
growth cone of a developing directing the growth of the axon This prevents the axon to grow away from the spinal cord.
interneuron axon. Binding stimulates across the midline. from growing back across
axon growth toward the floor plate. the midline.
Figure 48.33a, b (a) Growth of an interneuron axon toward and across the midline of the spinal cord
(diagrammed here in cross section)
(b) Growth of a motor neuron axon away
from the midline of the spinal cord
10 µm
Figure 48.34
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The induction of stem cell differentiation and
the transplantation of cultured stem cells
– Are potential methods for replacing neurons
lost to trauma or disease
• In major depression
– Patients have a persistent low mood
Figure 48.35
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• A successful treatment for AD in humans
– May hinge on early detection of senile plaques