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How do earth scientists define minerals and rocks?
Mineral a naturally occurring, homogeneous solid of characteristic chemical composition
whose constituent atoms are arranged in a symmetrical, periodic fashion referred to as a
crystal structure.
• Minerals are classified on the basis of their chemical composition and their crystal structure.
• About 3500 different mineral species have been identified.
• "All inorganic articles of commerce, if not minerals, are mineral products" (Klein, 2002)
Rock a naturally occurring, inhomogeneous solid made up of one or more minerals in different
proportions.
• When a rock consists of more than one mineral species, its composition and physical properties are
not definite.
• Rocks are classified on the basis of their mineralogy (types and relative proportions of minerals),
texture, and origin.
The Most Common Minerals in Earth’s Continental Crust
Mineral Name Composition Volume %
Plagioclase IX
(NaxCa1x)IV[Al2xSi2+xO8) 42
KFeldsparIXKIV[AlSi3]O8 22
Quartz IV
SiO2 18
Amphibole VIII
NaxVI(Mg,Fe2+,3+,Ca,Mn)7yIV[Alx+ySi8xyO22](OH)2 5
Pyroxene VIII
(Li,Na,Ca)VI(Mg,Fe2+,3+,Ca,Mn,Al)2IV[Si,Al]2O6 4
Biotite XII
KVI(Fe2+,Mg)3VI[AlSi3]O10(OH,F,O)2 4
Apatite Group VII
Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH,F,Cl) 0.5
The Ten Most Dangerous Minerals and Why
(from the perspective of human health) (Gordon Brown’s opinion)
Mineral Comments
10. Cinnabar (HgS) Main source of mercury; Very insoluble (Ksp = 1053.3) However,
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when oxidized, can be methylated by sulfatereducing bacteria, producing methyl
mercury and dimethyl mercury, two of the most toxic compounds known to humans.
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Causes developmental and nervous system disorders in fetuses and children. These
two compounds can kill at low concentration levels!
9. Galena (PbS) Main source of lead. Relatively insoluble (Ksp = 1027.5). When
released into the environment in various forms, can cause developmental and nervous
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system disorders in fetuses and children. Implicated in cardiovascular disease in adults.
The common weathering products of galena – cerrusite and anglesite – are much more
soluble than galena (as discussed earlier), resulting in much more rapid dissolution of
these tow minerals and quicker release of Pb into the environment.
8. Pyrite (FeS2) Main source of acid mine waters associated with sulfide mine
tailings. Oxidation of pyrite, which is catalyzed by certain types of bacteria and
archaea (see next slide), releases trace quantities of toxic metals and metalloids like As.
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Microbial oxidation rates of aqueous ferrous iron (see box below) are about 5 orders
of magnitude faster (5 x 107 mol L1s1) than abiotic oxidation rates (3 x 1012 mol L1s
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1
) at pH 2 and 25°C. Acid waters associated with pyrite oxidation cause solubilization
of toxic heavy metals, resulting in their dispersal in the environment. Ascontaining
pyrite in coals is a major health problem in the Guizhou province in southwest China,
affecting millions of people.
Microbially Mediated Oxidation of Pyrite:
An Example of Iron Oxide Nanoparticle Formation
FeS2 + H2O + 7/2 O2 = Fe2+(aq) + 2 SO42- + 2 H+
(Bostick et al., in preparation)
The Ten Most Dangerous Minerals and Why
(from the perspective of human health) (Gordon Brown’s opinion)
Mineral Comments
7. Fluorite (CaF2) The major fluorinecontaining mineral in the Earth’s crust, although
there are a number of other minerals that contain fluorine as well, and these others are
probably more important in an environmental context. Fluorite is relatively soluble (Ksp =
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10 ). Too much fluorine in human diets can cause a very severe bone disorder,
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resulting in an irreversible disease referred to as skeletal fluorosis. Various forms of
fluorosis affect more than 10 million people in the Guizhou province of China. There it is
present in coal, ranging in concentration from 200 to 1500 ppm; however, its exact form
is not known.
6. (tie) Quartz (SiO2) Quartz in fine particulate form has been known since Biblical
times to cause respiratory effects (silicosis or silicotuberculosis). Workers in the “dusty
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are needed to see this trades” – mining, sand blasting, quarrying, metallurgy, construction – suffer from these
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diseases. There is also concern about the potential of silica in other areas, including lung
cancer and other cancers, kidney disease, and immunological problems. Quartz is
relatively soluble (Ksp = 104)
6. (tie) Chrysotile (Mg3Si2O5(OH)4) Known as white asbestos. Chronic exposure
(chrysotile mine workers, insulation workers, etc.) can cause asbestosis, a progressive
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lung disease that causes hardening of lung tissue resulting in loss of elasticity and
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difficulty in breathing. Epidemiological studies do not suggest high risk of lung and
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mesothelial cancers among chrysotile mine workers, however (see Ross, 1984).
Chrysotile is relatively soluble in human lung fluids. The study by Hume and Rimstidt
(1992) predicted that a chrysotile fiber 1 µm in diameter would dissolve completely in the
The Ten Most Dangerous Minerals and Why
(from the perspective of human health) (Gordon Brown’s opinion)
Mineral Comments
5. KFeldspar (KAlSi3O8) This is one of the most common minerals in the Earth’s
continental crust, comprising about 22% by volume of crustal rocks. Kfeldspar has
made my ten most dangerous minerals list because it contains small quantities of
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TIFF (LZW) decompressorradioactive uranium, which decays to form radon gas, which has been implicated by the
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EPA as potentially responsible for about onethird of all lung cancer deaths in the U.S.
among nonsmokers. Kfeldspar is also a major source of Pb in the environment.
Although the average Pb concentration in typical Kfeldspars in granites is only about 20
ppm, this mineral is very abundant and weathers easily (relatively soluble), thus releases
more Pb into the environment naturally than most other Pbcontaining minerals.
4. Phenacite (BeSiO4) Fortunately, this is not a very common mineral and is no longer
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phosphor used in fluorescent lights (when I was a kid). When one of these fluorescent
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light tubes broke, the common warning was not to take a breath for fear of breathing in
some of the Becontaining dust, which is highly poisonous.
The Ten Most Dangerous Minerals and Why
(from the perspective of human health) (Gordon Brown’s opinion)
Mineral Comments
3. Erionite (NaK2MgCa1.5)[Al8Si28]O72 28H2O) A fibrous zeolite (sometimes referred to as
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a molecular sieve). Known to induce malignant mesotheliomas in humans, based on
epidemiological studies on the Cappadocian plateau of Turkey.
2. Hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH)) Apatite is a serious health threat because it can form
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seedeposits in human heart valves and arteries, resulting in restricted flow of blood or
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complete blockage. Many people die each year because of such blockages.
9. (tie) Iron oxides Major source of iron for steelmaking.
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9. (tie) Copper minerals Major source of copper, which is used as an
electrical conductor in all sorts of applications.
8. Ferrihydrite (≈Fe(OH)3) Common natural sorbers of toxic heavy metals
and metalloids such as As, Se, Pb, etc. (hydrous manganese oxides have a
similar importance and are probably more important than iron hydroxides in
the marine environment).
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7. Zeolites Known as molecular sieves, zeolites are commonly used in the
cracking of petroleum to make gasoline, in chemical catalysis, and as cation
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exchangers in softening H2O.
The Ten Most Beneficial Minerals and Why
(from the perspective of human usage) (Gordon Brown’s opinion)
Mineral Comments
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6. Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) An important component of cements.
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5. Salt (NaCl) An essential nutrient. Are you worth your salt?
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4. Quartz (SiO2) Essential in the early development of civilization because of
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producing sharp edges). It is also the primary source of silicon, which is the
major chemical component of modern semiconductors (Silicon Valley).
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are needed to see this picture. 3. (tie) Calcite (CaCO3) Calcite sequesters CO2 in the lithosphere. Without
calcite or some other carbonate mineral that was equally effective at
sequestering CO2, we would live on a much warmer planet.
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3. (tie) Phosphates Essential plant nutrient used in fertilizers.
The Ten Most Beneficial Minerals and Why
(from the perspective of human usage) (Gordon Brown’s opinion)
Mineral Comments
1. Clay minerals Without clay minerals, we would have very poor soils that
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would be incapable of holding nutrient elements like K, nitrogen, and
phosphorous, which are necessary for plant growth. Without plants and soils,
we wouldn’t be here!
Solubility of Minerals and Their Dissolution in Aqueous Solutions
Minerals dissolve when in contact with water or an aqueous solution, releasing its ions to solution. This occurs for all
minerals. However, the process is much, much slower for some minerals than for others. For example, the mineral
galena (PbS) has a solubility product (Ksp) (see below) of 1027.5, which is many orders of magnitude lower than two of
its most common weathering products – anglesite (PbSO4: Ksp = 107.7) and cerrusite (PbCO3: Ksp = 1012.8). Some
other lead minerals such as pyromorphite (Pb5(PO4)3Cl) have a solubility product (1084.4) that is much, much lower
than that of galena, anglesite, or cerrusite, which means that pyromorphite is much more difficult to dissolve in water
and thus is a more stable host for lead than these three phases.
The solubility product of a mineral is defined in the following way using lead sulfate solid as an example
PbSO4(s) ↔ Pb2+ + SO42
At equilibrium Keq = {Pb2+}[{SO42} / {PbSO4(s)}
The solubility product is defined as Ksp = [Pb2+][SO42] = 107.7 (at 25°C and 1 atm.)
The instantaneous value of the ion product [Pb2+][SO42], whether at equilibrium or otherwise, is called the ion activity
product or IAP.
When IAP < Ksp : The solution is undersaturated with respect to the solid and the solid will dissolve.
When IAP = Ksp : Equilibrium exists between the solid and the saturated solution.
When IAP > Ksp : The solution is supersaturated with respect to the solid and the solid will precipitate until IAP = Ksp.
The solubility of a mineral can vary a great deal as a function of common variables like pH, the ionic strength of the
aqueous solution with which it is in contact, and temperature, for example. Whereas calcite (CaCO3) has a solubility
product of 108.35 in freshwater, with a typical ionic strength of 0.001 M, its solubility is about four times higher in
seawater, which has an average ionic strength of about 0.7M.