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(ii) Fixed
(iii) Cantilever
(iv) Continuous
B eam
(vi) Overhanging
(vii) Restrained.
F o u n d a tio n
Behaviour of Components in Service and the Testing of Materials
Components and devices in service have to satisfy certain ‘performance parameters’ (load
to borne, temperature of operation, environment of operation, etc.).
To satisfactorily perform under a given service conditions, the material should possess
certain properties. And, we would like to avoid failure # of these components/devices.
Before we design and test components, we would like to know about the material properties
(on which we can base our design). Also, often it is difficult to test entire components (like
a gear wheel) or a system of components (like a gear wheel assembly).
Usually, special ‘test rigs’ are designed to test a ‘full’ components or an assembly of
components.
Hence, often we rely on test data on ‘model’ samples, with ‘ideal’ geometries. These tests
include: hardness test, uniaxial tension test, bending test (3-point, 4-point), torsion test,
hardness test, creep test, etc.
The challenge is to use this data obtained from model tests, for the design of components.
The component may have a complicated geometry and which experiences a state of stress,
which is considerably different from that in the model test.
In the design of structures the (i) strength (), (ii) deformation () and (iii) stability are taken into account.
# Failure implies deviation from desired performance.
In general failure can be avoided by:
(i) a better design of the system (such that the component experiences a lower ‘degree of
loading’) and/or
(ii) better design of the component.
Further, the improvement in the component design could involve a better: (i) geometrical
design and/or
(ii) material design (i.e. choice of material).
Another way of looking at ways to avoid material failure is:
Protect the material (paint to avoid corrosion, cool the material if ‘heating’ is leading to failure)
Make a ‘better’ material (design a material to withstand high temperatures, if creep is leading to failure)
Have a ‘sacrificial strategy’ (have a sacrificial anode which will corrode in preference to the material of interest, have a
shield which will burn up during re-entry of a space vehicle thus protecting the interior)
Most of the engineering failures (~70%) happen due to fatigue and corrosion.
Mechanical Behaviour
Pushing a spring Release
Regains
Original length Original length
Crack Propagation
Crack Propagation
Fatigue Oscillatory loading
Each of the phenomenological effects (let us consider creep) may have multiple mechanisms
which may give rise to the effect (in creep, grain boundary sliding and diffusion are two of
the possible mechanisms). The ‘effect’ in the current context could be an observable like
‘irreversible deformation’ (i.e. plastic deformation).
When there are two (or more) competing mechanisms are available to respond to a stimulus
(say applied load which results in a stress state in the material), then the mechanism which operates at a
lower magnitude of the stimulus (stress in the current situation) operates (in preference to other competing
mechanisms).
Material variables (like grain size, segregation, crystal structure, etc.) and process
variable/loading conditions (like temperature, strain rate) will play a key role in determining
the mechanism which will be operative.
Notes on the Classification of Mechanical Behaviour
The classification presented is for ‘convenience’ and many details have been ignored.
In the uniaxial tension test (loading of specimen in uniaxial tension), dislocation ‘activity’ starts well below
the yield stress (as we shall see later)→ plasticity in the microscale (in the ‘elastic’ region!!).
Creep also leads to ‘plastic deformation’!
Fracture in ductile material also involves plasticity at the crack tip level.
During fatigue loading (loading oscillating in load/stress, usually below the yield stress),
dislocation activity can lead to surface intrusions and extrusions (plastic deformation at the
microscopic level).
Plastic deformation is volume conserving, while elastic deformation (in general) is not.
Hydrostatic states of stress tend to cause volume changes, while shear stress tend to cause
shape changes.
* More will be said about that, when we talk about anelasticity and creep.
What kind of mechanisms can lead to ‘failure’?
If failure is considered as deterioration in desired performance*- which could involve changes
in properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as below.
Elastic deformation**
Bond distortion
Creep Chemical / Physical
Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Plastic Fracture degradation
deformation Cracks
Microstructural
Twinning changes
Wear
Slip Dislocations Twinning
Corrosion Erosion
Etc. Phase transformations
Oxidation
Grain growth
Beyond a certain limit
Particle coarsening
...and more.
** Some may wonder as to how elastic deformation can be construed as failure.
Funda Check How can elastic deformation lead to (/constitute) failure?
Torsion
Deformed configuration
Torsio
Shea Note: modes of
n deformation in other
r contexts will be
defined in the topic on
plasticity
Tensio Compressio
n n
In a given scenario the general loading will be a combination of the types of loading
considered previously.
Basically, we can apply* either:
(i) Forces (axial or shear) or
(ii) Moments (bending or twisting)
In this chapter (and the course), (most of the time) we will assume that the loading is applied slowly (quasi-
statically) i.e. wave propagation and contact damage effects can be ignored.
$
A general case is a mixture of the two.
%
In the extreme case the bonds might break.
* In torsion the strain varies radially outward.
Funda Check What can happen to a ‘material’ body (solid) on the application of external
loads/forces/constraints?
Contraction/dilation
Volume change
What can happen to a Or a
material body (solid) combination
when we apply Shear Shape change of these
forces/constraints to the
outside of the body
Rigid body rotation Orientation change
Example showing how parts of a single body may have different responses to loading
Fig.1
b
c
a
Note the bottom
Simple Shear The way the diagram is drawn the body is not in equilibrium!
Elastic
Deformation
Plastic
Net deformation in a body can comprise of elastic and plastic parts.
Elastic deformation may be linear or non-linear.
There might also be a time dependent component to deformation (i.e. after application of
force, full strain may be realized after some time).
Plastic deformation may be caused by many mechanisms (slip, twinning, phase
transformation etc.)
What is a spring?
A spring can be thought of as a ‘device’ which changes tensile loading to torsional loading at the fundamental
(material) level!
What is a conducting solenoid?
A current carrying wire produces circular magnetic fields. A solenoid can be thought of as a ‘device’ to covert
circular fields to a linear field (in the core of the solenoid) it some sense the opposite of the spring above.
Forces and Stresses
(Here we restrict ourselves to ‘solid bodies’)
One can only apply forces or loads (we cannot apply stresses!).
In some sense we can also impose displacements.
Stresses develop inside the body
(Often in response to external loads and constraints but not always! E.g. dislocations in materials lead to stress
fields, even in the absence of external loads).
* We can also impose constraints which can result in stresses in the body (we can heat a block
between two ‘rigid’ walls and stresses will develop in the block).
ij 21 22 23 ij 21 22 23
Click here to know more about stress and strain
31 32 33 31 32 33
* Note that these definitions are applicable only in 1D. The symbol is also used for the shear components.
Stress and Strain (cotd.) **Note**
On Heating
Normal stresses
on faces not
shown
Torsion
Parameters (Variables) in Deformation
We have already seen two important parameters (variables) in deformation → , .
Materials typically ‘soften’ on heating and hence temperature (T) is an important variable.
Materials which are brittle at room temperature may also become ductile due to heating.
The rate of loading, which translates into strain rate is another variable →
materials which are ductile under slow rate of loading may behave in a ‘less ductile manner’
which loading rate is faster. Typically the strain rate has to be varied by a few orders of
magnitude to observe appreciable effects.
At low temperatures strain and strain hardening exponent (n) are important variables.
At high temperatures strain rate and strain rate sensitivity (m) are important variables.
In terms of the effet on the plastic deformation behaviour of a material, an increase in
strain rate can be visualized as a decrease in temperature.
We will come across other variables as we go along.
, , , T
Variables in deformation
n m
Strain hardening Strain rate
exponent sensitivity
What kind of constitutive models (of deformation) can we consider?
A constitutive model relates stress, true strain, strain rate and temperature.
Typically, the temperature and strain or strain rate is kept constant.
Models with increasing degree of complexity are as below. Sometimes these models are to
simplify the analysis.
D C