AREN 304

SOIL MECHANICS
Lecturer: Dr. (Mrs.) P.K. Amoatey
Seepage Analysis
(Flow Nets)
 Objectives

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to

1. Draw flow nets
2. Compute seepage and flow through a dam
3. Calculate uplift forces and factor of safety
 Introduction: Effects of Seepage

• Darcy’s law is applied to the simple case of calculating the flow of

water through soil.
• However, flow of water through soil is not in one direction only,
nor is it uniform over the entire area perpendicular to the flow.
• In such cases, the groundwater flow is generally calculated by the
use of graphs referred to as flow nets.
• The concept of the flow net is based on Laplace’s equation of
continuity, which governs the steady flow condition for a given
point in the soil mass.
• Laplace’s equation and its application to seepage problems is
discussed in this chapter.
4
 Introduction: Effects of Seepage
• The interaction between soils and percolating water has an important influence
on:
• The design of foundations and earth slopes,
• The quantity of water that will be lost by percolation through a dam or its
subsoil.
• As
  water flows through soil it exerts a frictional drag on the soil particles
resulting in head losses.
• The frictional drag is called seepage force.
• Seepage js is defined as the seepage force per unit volume (it has units similar
to unit weight).
• If the head loss over a flow distance L, is then the seepage force is given as:
  ∆h𝛾𝑤
𝐽 𝑠= =𝑖 𝛾 𝑤
𝐿 5
 Effects of Seepage

• If the seepage direction is downwards, then the resultant

seepage stresses are in the same direction as the gravitational
effective stresses.
• In case of upwards seepage, they are in opposite direction
6
 Effect of Seepage on Structures

• Foundation failures due to 'piping' are quite

common.
• Piping is a phenomenon by which the soil on the
downstream sides of a hydraulic structure gets
lifted up due to excess pressure of water.
• The pressure that is exerted on the soil due to the
seepage of water is called the seepage force or Effects of seepage on the
pressure. effective stresses near a
retaining wall.
• Seepage loss under or through a dam, the uplift
pressures caused by the water on the base of a
concrete dam and the effect of seepage on the
stability of earth slopes can be studied by
constructing flow nets. 7
 Plane Flow under a Dam
Cross section of a long dam (flow in the y direction is negligible)

Dam

Soil
Flow
x

Impermeable bedrock
 Seepage Flow under a Dam

vz
C

vx D Soil B z
Element
A
x
Flow into a soil element
Net flow =(vx(B)-vx(D))yz+(vz(C)-vz(A)) xy (6a)

For steady state seepage the net flow will be

zero, thus

v x v z
  0 (6b)
x z
 Seepage Flow under a Dam
Continuity Equation
v x  v z (6b)
Continuity Equation   0
x  z
+
+ Darcy's Law
h
vx  k H
Darcy’s Law x (5)
h
vz  k V
z

 h  h (7b)
(k H )  (k V )  0
Flow equation x x z z
 Seepage Flow under a Dam

 h  h (7b)
Flow equation
(k H )  (k V )  0
x x z z

2 2
 h  h
For a homogeneous soil kH 2  kV 2  0 (7c)
x z

2 2
 h  h
For an isotropic soil 2
 2 0 (7d)
x z
 Drawing Flow Nets

When drawing flow nets by hand it is most convenient to

draw them so that
• Each flow tube carries the same flow ΔQ
• The head drop between adjacent EPs,Δh, is the same
• Then the flow net is comprised of “SQUARES”
 Geometric Properties of Flow Nets

• Demonstration of ‘square’ rectangles with inscribed circles

 Procedure for Drawing Flow Nets

• Mark all boundary conditions

• Draw a coarse net which is consistent with the boundary
conditions and which has orthogonal equipotentials and
flow lines. (It is usually easier to visualize the pattern of
flow so start by drawing the flow lines).
• Modify the mesh so that it meets the conditions outlined
above and so that rectangles between adjacent flow lines
and equipotentials are square.
• Refine the flow net by repeating the previous step.
 Drawing Flow Nets

• To calculate the flow and pore pressures in the

ground a flow net must be drawn.
• The flow net must be comprised of a family of
orthogonal lines (preferably defining a square
mesh) that also satisfy the boundary conditions.
Seepage Under Dams
• Flow nets for seepage
through earthen dams
• Seepage under
concrete dams
• Uses boundary
conditions (L & R)
• Requires curvilinear
square grids for
solution
16
 Flow Nets

• A tank in the lab like this one

will...
• The path of the flow would be
curved as shown.
• The energy driving the h
seepage, h?
• The water would seep from the
left chamber, through the soil
and into the right chamber.
 Flow Nets
• If we stretch the tank, we have
a mainly horizontal channel for
the seepage flow from the left
chamber to the right
• Line ca is the upstream
equipotential boundary where
the total head is h h
• Lines ab and cefd are the
boundaries of this flow
channel
• Line bd is the downstream
equipotential boundary where
the total head is 0
 Flow Nets
• In order to determine the total
head and pore water pressure
at any point in the mass of soil
we subdivide the flow channel
into smaller channels
• What would the total head be
at the half way mark (at points half way
mark
x, y or z)?
• at ca h = h
h=
h=
• at bd h = 0 h 0.5h
x h=
• The water would rise to the
y
0

same level on the hydraulic

grade line from each of these z
points.
 Flow Nets

• Each point has equal

potential and therefore
the line through them
is an “equipotential”.
half way
• If we divide the mark
seepage journey into
equally spaced drops h= h=
0.5h
in head then we get a h x h=
0
flow net. y

z
 Flow through a Dam

Phreatic line

Unsaturated
Soil
Drainage
blanket

z Flow of water

2 h 2 h
x  2 0
x 2
z
 Graphical Representation of Solution
1. Equipotentials lines: these are lines of constant head, h(x,z)
or potentials head at all points are equal.

Equipotential (EP)
 Graphical Representation of Solution
2.Flow lines: Paths followed by water particles follow from
upstream to downstream in a permeable soil medium. It is
usually tangential to flow
Phreatic line

Flow line (FL)

Equipotential (EP)
 Properties of Equipotentials

Flow line (FL)

Equipotential (EP)

h(x,z) = constant (1a)

h h
Thus: dx  dz  0 (1b)
x z
 dz  h / x
Equipotenial slope
 d x    (1c)
EP h / z
 Properties of Flow Lines
z
x
Geometry

Flow line (FL)

vz
vx
Equipotential (EP)
Kinematics

 dx  vx
 
From the geometry  dz 
 FL vz (2b)

h h
Now from Darcy’s law vx  k vz   k
x z

 dx  h x
Hence  dz   (2c)
FL h z
 Geometric Properties of Flow Nets

• Streamlines ψ and Equipotential lines  are perpendicular.

• Streamlines Y are parallel to flow boundaries.
• Grids are curvilinear squares, where diagonals cross at right
angles.
• Each stream tube carries the same flow.
• The flow net has square grids, so the head drop is the same in
each potential drop: ∆h1 = ∆h2
• If there are nd such drops, then:∆h = (H/n)
where H is the total head loss between the first and last
equipotential lines.
Orthogonality of Flow and Equipotential Lines

Flow line (FL)

Equipotential (EP)

 dz  h / x
On an equipotential  d x   
EP h / z

 dx  h x
On a flow line  dz  
FL h z
Orthogonality of Flow and Equipotential Lines

Flow line (FL)

Equipotential (EP)

 dz  h / x
On an equipotential  d x   
EP h / z

 dx  h x
On a flow line  dz  
FL h z

 dx   dx  (3)
      1
Hence  dz  FL  dz  EP
 Geometric Properties of Flow Nets
From the definition of flow
Q (4a)
h+h Y v
h yx

Z FL From Darcy’s law

h+2h h
T vk (4b)
EP zt

t X Q Combining (4a)&(4b)
y
X
FL Q yx
 (4c)
z kh zt

Similarly
Q Q YX (4d)

kh ZT
 Geometric Properties of Flow Nets
From the definition of flow
Q
h+h Y v (4a)
h yx
From Darcy’s law
Z FL
h+2h h
T vk (4b)
EP zt
t X Q Combining (4a)&(4b)
y
X
FL Q yx
 (4c)
z kh zt
Conclusion
Similarly
Q yx YX Q YX
 (5)  (4d)
zt ZT kh ZT
 Geometric Properties of Flow Nets
From the definition of flow
Q B (6a)
Q
v
Q h)
EP( h cd
C

FL D

d A
b EP ( h 
+ h)
h
From Darcy’s law (6b)
a
c
h
vk
ab
 Geometric Properties of Flow Nets

Q B Combining (6a)&(6b)

Q h) Q cd (6c)
EP( h 
C kh ab
FL D

d A
b EP ( h 
+ h)
h
a
c Similarly
Q CD
 (6d)
kh AB
 Phreatic
Common Boundary Conditions
a. Submerged soil boundary - Equipotential
Flow line (FL)
Water Equipotential (EP)
H-z
H h 
u
w  z

w
z now

u   (H  z)
w w (7)

Datum so
(H  z)
h  w  z  H

w
 Common Boundary Conditions

b. Impermeable soil boundary - Flow Line

Permeable Soil
vn=0
Flow Line
vt

Impermeable Material
 Common Boundary Conditions Phreatic

c. Line of constant pore pressure - eg. phreatic

surface
Flow line (FL)
u
Head is given by h  w  z
 Equipotential (EP)
w

 u
and thus  h  w   z


w

now if pore pressure is constant u  0

w

and hence (8)

 h   z
 Common Boundary Conditions

c. Line of constant pore pressure - eg. phreatic surface

The phreatic surface connects points at which the pressure head is zero.
Value of Head on Equipotentials
H
h  (9)
Number of potential drops

Phreatic line

15 m

Datum
h = 15m h=0

h = 3m
h = 12m h = 9m h = 6m
 Dam Design: Types of dam
Type Materials Typical cross section Plan view

Gravity Concrete,
rubble masonry
Arch Concrete

Buttress Concrete, Ferro

cement, timber,
steel
Embankment Earth, rock
 Dam design: Seepage: Flow nets

• Lines of constant potential, and constant flow

– Perpendicular
– Should form a series of squares
• Note boundary conditions
Dam design: Seepage: Typical flow nets
Typical Flow Nets of Earth Dams
Seepage through Earth Dams
 Flow Nets: Useful Relationships
• Each channel carries an equal flow: ∆q = k∆h

h
• Each drop in head is equal to: Δh 
Nd
where Nd is the number of partitions or drops in potential
• The total flow carried: q = Nf∆q
where Nf is the number of flow channel partitions
Nf
• Or, the total flow carried: q  kh
Nd
nd
hp  h
And, the head at any point P: Nd
where n is equipotential number (0 at downstream FWS)
 Example: Calculation of Flow

Let us assume that the depth of water retained by the

dam is 15 m, and that downstream of the dam the
water table is level with the ground surface. For this
case it can be seen that the total head drop is 15 m.
Inspection of Fig. 2 or Fig. 9 shows that the are 5
potential drops and hence the head drop between
each pair of potentials is h = 15/5 = 3 m. Suppose that
the permeability of the underlying soil is k=10-5 m/sec
(typical of a fine sand or silt)
Calculation of Flow
Phreatic line
15 m

h = 15m h=0

h = 3m
h =12m h = 9m h = 6m

For a single Flow tube of width 1m: Q = k h (10a)

For k = 10-5 m/s and a width of 1m Q = 10-5 x 3 m3/sec/m (10b)

For 5 such flow tubes Q = 5 x 10-5 x 3 m3/sec/m (10c)

For a 25m wide dam Q = 25 x 5 x 10-5 x 3 m3/sec (10d)

H
Note that per metre width Q  k Nf (10e)
Nh
 Calculation of Pore Pressure
Phreatic line

15 m

h = 15m h=0
5m
P

h = 3m
h = 12m h = 9m h = 6m

Pore pressure from 5m P

uw
h z (11a)
w
 Calculation of Pore Pressure
Phreatic line

15 m

h = 15m h=0
5m
P

h = 3m
h = 12m h = 9m h = 6m

Pore pressure from 5m uw

P h z (11a)
w
At P, using dam base as datum
u w  [12  ( 5)]  w (11b)
 Example Calculating Pore Pressures

The figure below shows a long vessel, 20 metres wide, stranded

on a sand bank. It is proposed to pump water into a well point,
10 metres down, under the centre of the vessel to assist in
towing the vessel off. The water depth is 1 metre. The sand has
a permeability of 3  10-4 m/sec. Assuming that a head of 50 m
can be applied at the well point calculate:
 
1. The pore pressure distribution across the base of the vessel
2.The total upthrust due to this increase in pore pressure
3. The rate at which water must be pumped into the well point.
Example Calculating Pore Pressures

20 m
Stranded Vessel

Water Supply

Soft Sea Bottom

Reaction Pile
Well Point
Example Calculating Pore Pressures
 Stranded Vessel
Example Calculating Pore Pressures
Water Supply

Soft Sea Bottom

A B C D E Reaction Pile
Well Point
Step 1: Choose a convenient datum. In this example the sea floor has been
chosen
Then H1 = 40 m
H2 = 1 m.

The increment of head, h = 39/9 = 4.333 m

 Example Calculating Pore Pressures Stranded Vessel

Water Supply
A B C D E
Soft SeaBottom
Reaction Pile
Well Point

Step 2: Calculate the head at points along the base of the vessel. For convenience
these are chosen to be where the EPs meet the vessel (B to E) and at the vessel
centerline (A). Hence calculate the pore water pressures.

uw  [ h (z)] w
At B Head = H1 - 5 h = H2 + 4 h = 18.33 m

Pore pressure at B = 18.33 w = 179.8 kPa

 Example : Calculating Pore Pressures
Step 3: Calculate the upthrust (Force/m) due to pore pressures
Distance from centreline (m)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0

Pore Wate r Pressure (kPa)

50

100

150

200

250

 201.1  179.8   179.8  137.3   137.3  94.9   94.9  52.3  

2   5     2.5    1.8     0.7 = 3218 kN/m
 2   2   2   2  

Without pumping Upthrust = 20  1  9.81 = 196 kN/m

Upthrust due to Pumping = 3218 – 196 = 3022 kN/m

 Example : Calculating Flow

Nf 14
Flow required, Q  k H = 3  10 4
 39   1.8  10 2 m3/m/sec
Nh 9
 AREN 304
SOIL MECHANICS
INSTRUCTOR: MRS PEACE AMOATEY