COURSE DETAILS;

Course Title : principles of Food science

and Nutrition.
Course No: Hrt 326
Assignment on: Definition ,measurement
,Density ,Phase change ,PH, Osmosis, Surface
tension, Colloidal system.
1) DENSITY;
 Quality of food materials can be assessed by measuring their densities.
Density data of foods are required in separation processes, such as
centrifugation and sedimentation and in pneumatic and hydraulic
transport of powders and particulates. In addition, measuring the density
of liquid is required to determine the power required for pumping.
 Density can be calculated after measuring the mass and volume of the
object because it is defined as the mass per unit volume. In the SI
system, the unit of density is kg/m3.
 Density can be expressed in different forms. For example, for particulate
materials such as grains, one may be interested in the density of
individual particles or the density of the bulk of the material which
includes the void volume. In literature, the definitions of densities differ
form each other. Therefore, the form of the density must be well defined
before presenting the data. The most commonly used definitions are:
 True density (ρT ) is the density of a pure substance or a composite
material calculated from the densities of its components considering
conservation of mass and volume
 CONTD;
 Solid density (ρs ) is the density of the solid material (including water), excluding
any interior pores that are filled with air. It can be calculated by dividing the
sample weight by solid volume determined by the gas displacement method in which
gas is capable of penetrating all open pores up to the diameter of the gas molecule.
 Material (substance) density (ρm) is the density of a material measured when the
material has been broken into pieces small enough to be sure that no closed pores
remain.
 Particle density (ρp) is the density of a particle that has not been structurally
modified. It includes the volume of all closed pores but not the externally
connected ones. It can be calculated by dividing the sample weight by particle
volume determined by a gas pycnometer.
 Apparent density (ρa) is the density of a substance including all pores within the
material (internal pores). Apparent density of regular geometries can be
determined from the volume calculated using the characteristic dimensions and
mass measured. Apparent density of irregularly shaped samples may be determined
by solid or liquid displacement methods.
 Bulk density (ρbulk) is the density of a material when packed or stacked in bulk.
Bulk density of particulate solids is measured by allowing the sample to pour into a
container of known dimensions. Special care should be taken since the method of
filling and the container dimensions can affect the measurement. It depends on the
solid density, geometry, size, surface properties, and the method of measurement.
It can be calculated by dividing the sample weight by bulk volume
 2) PH
 Hydrogen Ion Concentration
 pH is defined as hydrogen ion concentration .
 pH scale measures the degree of acidity of a substance Scale ranges from 0 to
14 with 7 being neutral pH < 7 is acidic and pH > 7 is basic .
 Used to express the degree of acidity or alkalinity of food .
 Strong acid is one that is 100% ionized in solution .
 Weak acid doesn’t ionize fully when dissolved .
 Strong base dissociates completely (NaOH, KOH)
 Weak base (NH4OH)
 pH and pK scales
 Water is neutral and amount of H+is equal to OH-ions in water (ionisation of
water) pH and pK scales measure acid strength.
 pKa is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the reciprocal of Ka.
 pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the
hydrogen ion concentration
 pKa = -log Ka pH
 Henderson –Hassel Bach equation
 pH = pKa + log [A -]/[HA]
 3) PHASE CHANGE;
 Phase transitions are transformations occurring between the three basic
physical states:1) solid, 2) liquid, and 3) gas
 The phase transitions of water in food systems are relatively well-known,
and applied in such operations as freezing, evaporation, and dehydration to
remove water and provide extended microbiological stability.
 The phase change refers to process whereby a material is converted from
one physical state to another. The most common phase transitions in foods
are ;
 Freezing; the substances change from a liquid to a solid.
 Melting; the substance changes back from the solid to the liquid.
 Condensation; the substance changes from a gas to a liquid.
 Vaporization; the substance changes directly from solid to a gas .
 Sublimation; the substance changes directly from a solid to a gas without
going through the liquid phase.
 Deposition; the substance directly changes directly from a gas to a solid
without going through the liquid phase.
 4) OSMOSIS;
 Osmosis defined – water drawn into a solution through semi permeable
membrane .
o Osmosis causes a change in relative volume of two liquids separated by semi-
permeable membrane resulting in osmotic pressure .
 Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to prevent the increase in volume.
 Role in food processing and preservation – mango pickling.
 5) Surface Tension
 Boundary between a liquid and a gas/vapour is called surface.
 Boundary between liquid-liquid or a solid-liquid junction is called interface.
 Molecules at the surface or interface are not surrounded completely by other
molecules of same type and same physical state results in net attractive force
for each molecule directed towards the interior of the phase in which
molecule resides Inward attraction reduces the number of molecules at the
surface/interface resulting in reduction of surface area.Forces (hydrogen
bonding and Van der Waal) causing reduction in surface area is referred to as
surface tension .
 Factors affecting surface tension –increase in temperature of a liquid phase
decreases the surface tension.
 6) COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS IN FOODS;
o All colloidal systems have two phases: a continuous phase and a
discontinuous or dispersed phase.
 Colloidal dispersion is a two-phase system in which the particles in the
dispersed phase are between 1 and 1000 nm in diameter.
 Colloidal systems in foods can be categorized into four groups based on the
states of matter constituting the two phases, which are sols, gels,emulsions,
and foams.
 A) Sols
 A sol can be defined as a colloidal dispersion in which a solid is the dispersed
phase and liquid is the continuous phase. Gravy, stirred custard, and other
thick sauces can be given as examples of sols.
 The proper ratio of the ingredients is necessary to achieve the desired
viscosity of the sols at a certain temperature.
 B) Gels
 A gel is the reverse of a sol in which a solid matrix is the continuous phase
and a liquid is the discontinuous phase. The solid in the gel is sufficiently
concentrated to provide the structure needed to prevent flow of the
colloidal system.
CONTD;

 c) Emulsions
 An emulsion is a colloidal system in which a liquid is dispersed
as droplets in another liquid with which it is immiscible.
Emulsions can be classified as oil-in-water (o/w) and water-in-
oil emulsions (w/o). In oil-in-water emulsions, oil is dispersed in
water as droplets. The typical example for o/w emulsions is
mayonnaise. In water-in-oil emulsions, such as butter, droplets
of water are dispersed in oil.
 Viscosities of the emulsions are very high as compared to the
viscosities of either of the liquids.
 For example, the viscosity of mayonnaise is higher than that of
the vinegar and oil used in preparing mayonnaise. The stability
of emulsions can be determined by the viscosity of the
continuous phase, the presence and concentration of emulsifier,
the size of the droplets, and the ratio of dispersed phase to the
continuous phase.
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