Power Systems in Steady-State: Valentin Ilea Department of Energy Politecnico Di Milano

Power systems in steady-state
Valentin Ilea
Department of Energy
Politecnico di Milano
Structure of an Electric Power System
EPS structure 3
Medium Voltage (MV) levels:

6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 4

6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 5
High Voltage (HV) levels:

220 – 750 kV – Transmission
110 – 150 kV – Sub-transmission

6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 6


6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 7


6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 8
MV levels: 6 – 69 kV

6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 9

6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 10
Primary Customers
Medium Voltage (MV) levels: LV levels: 380 V

6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 11
Primary Customers
Medium Voltage (MV) levels: LV levels: 380 V

6 – 35 kV
EPS structure 12
Power substation (connection points in the grid)
Electric Transformer
Terminals
Isolators
Cooling system
Case
EPS structure 13
1. Primary power lines 10. Control building

2. Grounded wire 11. Security fence
3. Overhead lines 12. Secondary power lines
4. Lightning arrester
5. Disconnect switch
6. Circuit breaker
7. Current transformer
8. Transformer for measurement of electric voltage
9. Main transformer
EPS structure 14
For Symmetrical and Balanced operating conditions (no-faults normal operating conditions):
Primary power lines Main transformer Secondary power lines

EPS structure 15
How complex a power system is ???

https://www.entsoe.eu/data/map/
The power system is a very complex meshed network through which the
electrical power is transmitted from the electrical energy converter
(generator, power plant) to the demand. It can be divided into
• Transmission:
 nominal voltages above 220 kV;
 highly meshed grids;
 Installed load/generation higher than 200 MW each.
EPS structure 16
• Subtransmission (HV distribution) generally:

380kV
132 or 150 kV
0,4 kV
23/20/15/10 kV
Sub-transmission generation, customers or MV grids
EPS structure 17

• Subtransmission (HV distribution):

 nominal voltages 132 – 150 kV;
 poorly meshed grids: ring between two-three substations (busbars);
 installed generation 8 – 200 MW, loads larger than 4 MW;
EPS structure 18
• Subtransmission (HV distribution):

400 kV Italian Transmission network
EPS structure 19
• MV distribution grid generally:
Primary substation HV/MV 1
MV MV MV
MV/LV MV/LV MV/LV Normally open
LV substation LV substation LV substation breaker or
disconnector
Primary subtstaion HV/MV2
MV MV
MV/LV MV/LV
LV substation LV substation
EPS structure 20

• MV distribution:
 nominal voltages 10-24 kV or even higher, up to 60 kV;
 Radial grids or ring topology (normally open);
 Installed capacity: loads/generators each in the range 4-8 MW;
• Secondary distribution:
 nominal voltages 400 V;
 Radial grids;
 Installed capacity: loads/generators each up to some hundreds of kW;
EPS structure 21
• MV distribution grid example:
sorce: https://pandapower.readthedocs.io/en/v1.5.1/_images/plotting_tutorial1.png
Power system’s components models
Power systems components models 23
Let us remember the main steps we took to solve Exercise 5 of the Synchronous
Machines applications:
V, I, Ploss, Qloss
VG
PG QG PD QD
• first, knowing the characteristics of the demand, calculations have been

performed to obtain the required real and reactive power from the grid;
• second, we made computations in the electrical grid to determine the nodal

voltages. power losses and currents in the network;
• finally, knowing the voltage at generator’s terminals and the power it needs to
inject into the network to suply the motor, the emf (therefore, the excitation
current) and the mechanical power at the shaft of the generator have been
determined;
Power systems components models 24
Let us remember the main steps we took to solve Exercise 5 of the Synchronous
Machines applications:
V, I, Ploss, Qloss
VG
PG QG PD QD
• it is clear that, from the network point of view, the generator and the motor
(demand) are seen as inputs so simplified models can be adopted, while the
network components (electric lines and transformers) need to be modeled in
details.
Generator Models 25
• Engineering models depend upon application

• Large generators are usually synchronous machines
• we have studied a detailed model for the synchronous generator:
Ig
R+jXS
Ef V
– a simplified model, treating the generator as a constant power source operating at

a fixed voltage will be used for power flow and economic analysis:
Pg
V = const.
– neglecting the losses in the machine: the real power is given by the turbine
mechanical power while the voltage is kept constant through the control of the
excitation current
Load Models 26
• Electrical characteristics of individual loads can usually only be estimated:

aggregate models are typically used
– actual loads are continuously changing, being an aggregation of a large number

of individual devices
– only limited observability of load
• It is important to know how the load changes with variations of bus voltage: three
(static) models can be adopted
– constant power (power flow studies): 𝐴´

𝐷 = 𝑃𝐷 + 𝑗 ∙ 𝑄 𝐷= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 .
– constant impedance:
2
V V
Z 
I P  jQ
– constant current:
𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄
¯𝐼 = =𝐼 ∠ ( 𝛿 − 𝜑 ) where 𝛿 is the voltage angle
´𝑉
Electric line Models 27
Electric lines can be made with bare air conductors (HV and MV), or in
underground cables (MV and LV).
The isolators support and isolate the conductors with respect to the sustaining
pillars.
The insulation between the conductors and the ground is guaranteed by the air.
Electric Power Systems

Distributed parameters model
Looking at an elementary length of line(ΔL) one can distinguish the
longitudinal parameters which are representative for the joule losses in the
conductors (the resistance) and the electromagnetic couplings between
conductors and between conductors and ground (the reactance):
𝟐
𝑷
𝑱 =𝚫 𝑹 𝑳 ∙ 𝑰
´𝑰

´𝑰

´𝑰

´ 𝑳 =− 𝒋 ∙ 𝚫 𝑿 𝑳 ∙ ´𝑰
𝑬

The transverse parameters are representative of the capacitive effects
between the conductors and between the conductors and the ground
(susceptance), and of the conductive effects (dispersion currents) on the
isolators, which cause the re-closing to the ground of a part of the current
through the support pillars (conductance).

The equivalent circuit for an elementary length of line (ΔL) can be

represented as follows:
Distributed parameter circuit.
ΔRl, ΔXl and ΔBc, ΔG are the

longitudinal and shunt
parameters of the line,
respectively.
To represent the entire line it would be neccessary to connect in series

as many bipoles as elementary lengths have been considered.
Distributed parameters model requires an excessively complicated and

poorly practical equivalent circuit.
Concentrated parameters model
To reduce the complexity, we switch to the concentrated parameter
representation: the electrical parameters of the line are combined in a
single point (or a limited number of points).
Concentrated
Rl  rl L X l  xl L Bc  bc L G  gL parameters
Rl Xl Bc G Per length (1 km)

rl  xl  bc  g
L L L L parameters of the line

Concentrated parameters model
In order to study the electrical power systems, the most used model is the
so-called «p-model»:
2 2 2
2
This choice is motivated by a better representation of the distributive

nature of the transversal parameters and by the need to limit the number
of variables to be managed.
For example, using a «T-model» for the representation of power lines will
increase the number of electrical nodes in the system:
The admittance matrix
The Power Flow problem: 34
Goal
An electrical network is represented as a set of interconnected electrical

nodes (the substations) through electrical branches (the electric lines and
the transformers).
Goal: Given a generic network, calculate the equilibrium condition of the

whole system, that is the steady-state values of the electrical variables in
all the nodes and in all the branches of the system.
In order to calculate this equilibrium, if we know the

parameters of the various branches, the problem is
reduced to the calculation of the nodal voltages.
Indeed, knowing the nodal voltages is possible to express
the currents (and therefore the powers) circulating on a
generic branch as:
𝑣´𝑖𝑗 = 𝑉´ 𝑖 − 𝑉´ 𝑗 = 𝑧´𝑖𝑗 ∙ 𝑖´𝑖𝑗

i 𝑧´𝑖𝑗 j 𝑉´ 𝑖 − 𝑉´ 𝑗
iij 𝑖´𝑖𝑗 =
𝑧´𝑖𝑗
The pu system 35
• Power transmission lines are operated at voltage levels where the kV is the most
convienent unit to express voltage. Because of the large amount of power transmitted,
kW or MW and kVA or MVA are the common terms. However, these quantities as well as
A and W are often expressed in per unit of a base or reference value.
• The per-unit value (pu) of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the quantity divided to its
base expressed as a decimal.
• The per-unit calculations are simpler and often more informative than the use of actual A,
W, V etc.
• Voltage, current, powers and impedance are so related that a selection of base values for
any two of them determines the base values of the remaining two.
The pu system 36
• Since balanced three-phase circuits are solved as a single line with a neutral return, the
bases for quantities are kVA (or MVA) per phase and kV from line to neutral. However,
data are ussually given as total three-phase kVA (or MVA) and line-to-line kV:
Actual circuit
Computations circuit
𝑉 𝐿𝐿, 𝑎
𝑉 𝑓 ,𝑎 =
√3
The pu system 37
• Although a line voltage may be specified as base, the voltage in the single phase voltage
(computation circuit) required for the solution is still the voltage to neutral. The base
voltage to neutral is the base voltage from line-to-line divided by :
𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉 𝐿𝐿
𝑉 𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑓 =
√3
• But in a balanced three-phase systems this is also the ratio between line-to-line and line-
to-neutral voltages:
𝑉 𝐿𝐿, 𝑎
𝑉 𝑓 ,𝑎 =
√3
• It follows that a per-unit value of a line-to-neutral voltage on the line-to-neutral voltage

base is equal to the per-unit value of the line-to-line voltage at the same point on the line-
to-line voltage base if the system is balanced:
𝑉 𝐿𝐿 ,𝑎 𝑝𝑢 𝑉 𝑓 ,𝑎 𝑉 𝐿𝐿 ,𝑎 √ 3 = 𝑉 𝐿𝐿, 𝑎 =𝑣 𝑝𝑢
𝑣 𝐿𝐿 ,𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑣 𝑓 , 𝑎= ∙
𝑝𝑢
and 𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 𝐿𝐿 ,𝑎
𝑉 𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑓 √3 𝑉 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝐿𝐿 𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉 𝐿𝐿
The pu system 38
• Similarly, the three-phase kVA (or MVA) is three times the kVA (or MVA) per-phase, and
three-phase kVA (or MVA) base is three times the base kVA (or MVA) per phase.
Therefore, the per-unit value of the three-phase kVA (or MVA) base is identical to the per-
unit value of the kVA ( or MVA) per phase on the kVA (or MVA) per-phase base:
𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐴3 𝑓 =3 ∙ 𝐴 1 𝑓
and
𝐴1𝑓 𝐴3 𝑓 3 𝐴3𝑓
𝐴3𝑓 𝑎 1 𝑓 =
𝑝𝑢 𝑝𝑢

𝑎 =
𝑝𝑢 and 𝑟𝑒𝑓
= ∙ 𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓 =𝑎3 𝑓
3𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐴1𝑓 3 𝐴3𝑓 𝐴3𝑓
𝐴 3𝑓
• For this reason in network computations the line-to-line voltage base and the three-phase
base powers are used.
The pu system 39
• Base impedance and base current can be computed directly from three-phase values of
base kV and base kVA (or MVA). If we interpret base kVA and base voltage in kV to mean
base kVA for the total of the three-phases and base voltage from line-to-line, we find
𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑓
3 𝑓 ( 𝑘𝑉𝐴 )
𝐼 = =𝐼 𝑟𝑒𝑓 ( 𝐴)
√ 3 ∙𝑉 𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐿𝐿 (𝑘𝑉 )
𝑟𝑒𝑓 2
𝑉 𝐿𝐿
𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑍1𝑓 =
𝑉
𝑟𝑒𝑓 2
𝑓
2
∙1000 (𝑘 𝑉 ∙ 1000)
=
(√ ) 3
2
∙ 1000 ( 𝑘 𝑉 ∙1000 )
𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑓 ( 𝑘𝑉𝐴 ) 𝑟𝑒𝑓

𝐴3𝑓
1𝑓
( ) 3
(𝑘𝑉𝐴 )
𝑟𝑒𝑓 2 2 𝑟𝑒𝑓 2 2
𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑉 𝐿𝐿 ∙1000 ( 𝑘 𝑉 ∙ 1000 ) 𝑉 𝐿𝐿 ( 𝑘 𝑉 )
𝑍 = 1𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝐴 (𝑘𝑉𝐴 )
3𝑓 𝐴 3 𝑓 ( 𝑀𝑉𝐴 )
The admittance matrix 40
• Let’s study this system

1
2
L
1 2
3
• Assume that losses in the
L
transformers can be neglected
for the sake of simplicity
• Then, 3 busses are
highlighted and the
corresponding graph is
represented

The electric model of the network is thus:
120 120
2 2
nodo (V, y12 nodo (P,V)
1 2
G1 G2
y130 y230
2 2
y13 y23
y130 y230
2 3 2
L
C nodo (P,Q)
Since the generation/demand is seen as external input to the network:
120 120
2 2
1 2
G1 G2
y130 y230
2 2
y13 y23
y130 y230
2 3 2
C nodo (P,Q)
Circuit theory method
• N buses interconnected by L branches can be represented through

the GRAPH of the network:
I1 I2
In the graph:
• One node is considered as refference for
the electrical potential (ground bus 0);
V2
V1 I3 • let Vp be the nodal electrical potential;
V3
• let Ip be the externally injected nodal
currents;
• finally, a convention for the orientation of
the currents circulating on the various
branches is adopted;
 In this way, an ORIENTATED GRAPH is obtained.

• Let us define:
 the column vector of nodal voltages with refference to bus 0

 the column vector of voltages across branches
 the diagonal matrix of branch admittances
For the given network: Let us define the set of nodes and branches of the network:
{ 1,2,3,0 }
ℵ=
ℬ=
{ (1,2 ) , ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 ,3 ) }
The order of the elements in the sets MUST be

V2 maintained when defining the matrices:
V1
𝑉1
V3
[ 𝑉´ ] = 𝑉 2
𝑉3
0
[] it is an NX1 vector

• Let us define:
 the column vector of nodal voltages with refference to bus 0

 the column vector of voltages across branches
 the diagonal matrix of branch admittances
For the given network:
ℬ=
{ (1,2 ) , ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 ,3 ) }
𝑣 21 𝑉 2−𝑉
[ ][ ]
1
𝑣31 𝑉 3 −𝑉 1
𝑣 𝑉 3 −𝑉 it is an LX1 vector
´ ] = 32 =
[𝑣 2
𝑣 01 −𝑉 1
it is defined
𝑣 02 −𝑉 2
according to the
𝑣 30 𝑉3 orientation of the
graph
120 120
2 2
1 2
G1 G2
y130 y230
2 2
y13 y23
y130 y230
2 3 2
C nodo (P,Q)
ℬ=
{ (1,2 ) , ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 ,3 ) }

´𝑦 12 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 13 ¿ ¿
[ ´𝑦 ]=
[ ¿ ´𝑦23
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦 230 ´𝑦 120
2 2
+ ¿ ¿
¿ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 120
2 2
¿
+ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 23 0
2 2
+ ] it is an LXL matrix
120 120
2 2
1 2
G1 G2
y130 y230
2 2
y13 y23
y130 y230
2 3 2
C nodo (P,Q)
ℬ=
{ (1,2 ) , ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 ,3 ) }

´𝑦 12 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 13 ¿ ¿
[ ´𝑦 ]=
[ ¿ ´𝑦23
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦 230 ´𝑦 120
2 2
+ ¿ ¿
¿ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 120
2 2
¿
+ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 23 0
2 2
120 120
2 2
1 2
G1 G2
y130 y230
2 2
y13 y23
y130 y230
2 3 2
C nodo (P,Q)
ℬ=
{ (1,2 ) , ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 ,3 ) }

´𝑦 12 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 13 ¿ ¿
[ ´𝑦 ]=
[ ¿ ´𝑦23
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦 230 ´𝑦 120
2 2
+ ¿ ¿
¿ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 120
2 2
¿
+ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 23 0
2 2
120 120
2 2
1 2
G1 G2
y130 y230
2 2
y13 y23
y130 y230
2 3 2
C nodo (P,Q)
ℬ=
{ (1,2 ) , ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 ,3 ) }

´𝑦 12 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 13 ¿ ¿
[ ´𝑦 ]=
[ ¿ ´𝑦23
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦 230 ´𝑦 120
2 2
+ ¿ ¿
¿ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 120
2 2
¿
+ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 23 0
2 2
120 120
2 2
1 2
G1 G2
y130 y230
2 2
y13 y23
y130 y230
2 3 2
C nodo (P,Q)
ℬ=
{ (1,2 ) , ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 ,3 ) }

´𝑦 12 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 13 ¿ ¿
[ ´𝑦 ]=
[ ¿ ´𝑦23
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦 230 ´𝑦 120
2 2
+ ¿ ¿
¿ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 120
2 2
¿
+ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 23 0
2 2
120 120
2 2
1 2
G1 G2
y130 y230
2 2
y13 y23
y130 y230
2 3 2
C nodo (P,Q)
ℬ=
{ (1,2 ) , ( 1 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 0 ,1 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 ,3 ) }

´𝑦 12 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 13 ¿ ¿
[ ´𝑦 ]=
[ ¿ ´𝑦23
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦 230 ´𝑦 120
2 2
+ ¿ ¿
¿ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 120
2 2
¿
+ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 23 0
2 2
Moreover, let us define the incidence matrix [A]NxL
• For oriented graphs, it describes the topology of the network

• Matrix [A] has N rows an L columns
• It is built according to the following rule: its element aij is
 0 if branch j is not connected to bus i

 +1 if branch j exits bus i (the orientation of the branch, and hence of
the branch current, is “outwards” the bus)
 -1 if branch j enters bus i (the orientation of the branch, and hence of
the branch current, is “inwards” the bus)

• For the considered example:
ℵ
ℬ
→ ( 1,2 ) ( 1,3 ) ( 2 , 3 ) ( 0,1 ) ( 0,2 ) ( 0,3 )
↓
−1 −1 0 −1 0 0 1
[
[ 𝐴 ]= 1
0
0
0
1
0
−1
1
0
0
0
1
−1
0
1
0
1
−1
] 2
• The last row is relevant to the reference bus and will not be
considered: it is a linear combination of the other rows.
 Let us define the column vector

𝑇
[ ´𝑖 ] =[ 𝑖 21 𝑖 31 𝑖 32 𝑖 01 𝑖 02 𝑖 30 ]
as the vector of the branch currents

(according to the orientation of the graph)
The KCL can thus be written in matrix form as:
𝑖2 1
[]
−1 −1 0 −1 0 0 𝑖3 1
[
[ 𝐴 ] ∙ [ ´𝑖 ] = 1
0
0
0
1
0
−1
1
0
0
0
1
−1
0
1
0
1
−1
𝑖
𝑖 01
𝑖 02
𝑖 30
]
∙ 32 =0
 Note that if the complete incidence matrix is used, the last

equation is linearly dependent on the other equations

 Let us define the column vector

𝑇
[ ´𝑖 ] =[ 𝑖 21 𝑖 31 𝑖 32 𝑖 01 𝑖 02 𝑖 30 ]
as the vector of the branch currents

(according to the orientation of the graph)
Therefore, the reduced matrix will be used

instead:
𝑖2 1
[]
𝑖3 1
−1 −1 0 −1 0 0
[
[ 𝐴 ] ∙ [ ´𝑖 ] = 1
0
0
1
−1
1
0
0
−1
0 1 ]𝑖
0 ∙ 32 =0
𝑖 01
𝑖 02
𝑖 30

•
• and vectors can now be linked:
[ 𝑣´ ] =[ 𝐴 ]𝑇 ∙ [ 𝑉´ ] = ¿
−1 1 0 0 𝑉 2− 𝑉 1 𝑣 21 V2
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
𝑉1 𝑉 3− 𝑉 1 𝑣 31 V1
−1 0 1 0
𝑉2 𝑉 3− 𝑉 2 𝑣
¿ 0 −1 1 0 = = 32 V3
−1 0 0 1 𝑉3 −𝑉1 𝑣 01
0 −1 0 1 0 −𝑉2 𝑣 02
0 0 1 −1 𝑉3 𝑣 30
• Note that the last column does not influence the results as the electric
potential of the refference bus is 0.

• Therefore, the previous expression can be written using the reduced A:
[ 𝑣´ ] =[ 𝐴 ]𝑇 ∙ [ 𝑉´ ] = ¿
−1 1 0 𝑉 2−𝑉 1 𝑣 21 V2
[ ] [ ][ ]
𝑉 3− 𝑉 1 𝑣 31 V1
−1 0 1
𝑉1
¿ 0
−1
0
0
−1
0
−1
0
1
0
0
1
[]𝑉2
𝑉3
=
𝑉 3− 𝑉 2
−𝑉 1
−𝑉 2
𝑣
= 32
𝑣 01
𝑣 02
V3
𝑉3 𝑣 30

• Putting it all together
𝐼1
[]
[ ´𝐼 ] = 𝐼 2 = [ 𝐴 ] ∙ [ ´𝑖 ]
𝐼3
I1 I2
where is the column vector of external

nodal current injections; its size is (N-1)X1 V2
V1
if the reduced matrix is used. I3
V3
• moreover
[ ´𝑖 ] =[ ´𝑦 ] ∙ [ 𝑣 ] =[ ´𝑦 ] ∙ [ 𝐴 ] 𝑇 ∙ [ 𝑉´ ]
• thus
[ ´𝐼 ] =[ 𝐴 ] ∙ [ ´𝑖 ] =[ 𝐴 ] ∙ [ ´𝑦 ] ∙ [ 𝐴 ] 𝑇 ∙ [ 𝑉´ ]

• We
have found a liniar relationship between
the vector of nodal voltages and the vector of
nodal current injections into the buses I1 I2
𝐼
[ ´ ] =[ 𝐴 ] ∙ [ ´𝑦 ] ∙ [ 𝐴 ]𝑇 ∙ [ 𝑉´ ]
• we define the nodal admittance matrix as
V2
V1 I3
𝑇
[ 𝑌
´ ] ≜ [ 𝐴 ] ∙ [ ´𝑦 ] ∙ [ 𝐴 ]
V3
• it’s a square matrix of size (N-1)X(N-1)
[ 𝑌
´ ] ≜ [ 𝐴 ] ∙ [ ´𝑦 ] ∙ [ 𝐴 ]𝑇
[(N-1)XL] [LXL] [LX(N-1)]
• therefore
´
[ ] =[ 𝑌´ ] ∙ [ 𝑉´ ]
𝐼
• For our example:
−1 1 0
−1
[ 𝑌´ ] ≜ 1
[
0
−1
0
1
0
−1
1
−1
0
0
0
−1
0
0
1][
´𝑦 1
0 ∙ ¿
¿
¿
´𝑦 3
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦5
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦2
¿
¿
¿
´𝑦 4
¿
¿
]
¿ ∙
´𝑦 6
[ ]
−1
0
−1
0
0
0
−1
0
−1
0
1
1
0
0
1

´𝑦12 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 13 ¿ ¿
[
´𝑦 1 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 2 ¿ ¿
[ ´𝑦 ]= ¿ ´𝑦 3 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 4 ¿ = ¿ ´𝑦 23
¿ ¿ ´𝑦 5 ¿ ¿ ¿ ´𝑦 6

¿ ¿
] [
¿
𝑦´ 130 ´𝑦120
2 2
+
¿ ¿
¿ ¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 120
2 2
+
¿
¿
´𝑦 130 ´𝑦 120
2 2
+ ]
• For our example:
1
1 2
2 3

3
4 6
5
• no matter the orientation of the graph branches, the result will be the
same
• for a system with N buses (N+1 buses with the ground bus), [Y] is an N
by N symmetric, sparse matrix: nonzero elements are in the position ij
only if bus i and bus j are directly connected

• Another example example:
We can get similar relationships for buses 3 and 4

The results can then be expressed in matrix form
I  Y  V 
 I1  YA  YB YA YB 0  V1 
I   Y YA  YC  YD YC YD  V2 
 2   A  
 I3    Y B YC YB  YC 0  V3 
I   0 YD 0 YD  V4 
 4 
• no matter the orientation of the graph branches, the result will be the
same
• for a system with N buses (N+1 buses with the ground bus), [Y] is an N
by N symmetric, sparse matrix: nonzero elements are in the position ij
only if bus i and bus j are directly connected

General Form of [Y] 65
Graph Inspection method
• The diagonal terms, Yii, are the self-admittance terms, equal to the
sum of the admittances of all branches incident to bus i
• The off-diagonal terms, Yij, are equal to the negative of the sum of
the admittances of the branches directly connecting the two buses i
and j
• With large systems, the fact that [Y] is a sparse matrix (that is, most
entries are zero) is a major advantage, from both the storage and
the computation time point of view
• Shunt terms, such as with the p line model, only affect the diagonal
terms

Bus Admittance Matrix 66
• First step in solving the power flow is to create what is known as the
bus admittance matrix, often called the Y 
• It gives the relationships between all the bus current injections and
 I   Y  V 
bus voltages
• If all busses are considered, including the reference bus, Y  is

singular and its inverse does not exist

Bus Admittance Matrix 67
If the voltages were known then we could immediately

find current injections:
 Y  V    I 
If current injections were known then we could
solve the linear system for voltages:
1
 Y   I   V    Z   I 
where  Z  is the bus impedance matrix
However the models we have assumed for the generators/demand

are constant power models; we cannot use this formulation
directly

Power Systems in Steady-State: Valentin Ilea Department of Energy Politecnico Di Milano

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Power systems in steady-state

Medium Voltage (MV) levels:

Medium Voltage (MV) levels:

High Voltage (HV) levels:

Medium Voltage (MV) levels:

High Voltage (HV) levels:

Medium Voltage (MV) levels:

High Voltage (HV) levels:

Medium Voltage (MV) levels:

Medium Voltage (MV) levels:

Medium Voltage (MV) levels:

Medium Voltage (MV) levels: LV levels: 380 V

Medium Voltage (MV) levels: LV levels: 380 V

1. Primary power lines 10. Control building

Primary power lines Main transformer Secondary power lines

How complex a power system is ???

• Subtransmission (HV distribution) generally:

How complex a power system is ???

• Subtransmission (HV distribution):

• Subtransmission (HV distribution):

• MV distribution grid generally:

Primary substation HV/MV 1

Primary subtstaion HV/MV2

How complex a power system is ???

• MV distribution grid example:

• first, knowing the characteristics of the demand, calculations have been

• second, we made computations in the electrical grid to determine the nodal

• Engineering models depend upon application

– a simplified model, treating the generator as a constant power source operating at

• Electrical characteristics of individual loads can usually only be estimated:

– actual loads are continuously changing, being an aggregation of a large number

– constant power (power flow studies): 𝐴´

Electric Power Systems

Electric Power Systems

Electric Power Systems

The equivalent circuit for an elementary length of line (ΔL) can be

Distributed parameter circuit.

ΔRl, ΔXl and ΔBc, ΔG are the

To represent the entire line it would be neccessary to connect in series

Distributed parameters model requires an excessively complicated and

Rl Xl Bc G Per length (1 km)

Electric Power Systems

This choice is motivated by a better representation of the distributive

An electrical network is represented as a set of interconnected electrical

Goal: Given a generic network, calculate the equilibrium condition of the

In order to calculate this equilibrium, if we know the

• It follows that a per-unit value of a line-to-neutral voltage on the line-to-neutral voltage

𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑓 ( 𝑘𝑉𝐴 ) 𝑟𝑒𝑓

• Let’s study this system

• Let’s study this system

• Let’s study this system

Electric Power Systems

The electric model of the network is thus:

Since the generation/demand is seen as external input to the network:

• N buses interconnected by L branches can be represented through

 In this way, an ORIENTATED GRAPH is obtained.

 the column vector of nodal voltages with refference to bus 0

The order of the elements in the sets MUST be

Electric Power Systems

 the column vector of nodal voltages with refference to bus 0

For the given network:

Moreover, let us define the incidence matrix [A]NxL

• For oriented graphs, it describes the topology of the network