Logic and

Reasoning
MATH10
Logic and
Reasoning
Mathematical Statements

Definition: A mathematical
statement is a statement that
can be assigned a truth value
and classified as true or false,
but not both.
Lowercase letters, p, q, r,
s,...., are used to represent
mathematical statements.
Example 1

The following are mathematical statements:

p :1+1=2
q :2+3=6
r : All roses are red.
s : The Philippines has more than 7,100 islands.
Example 2
The following are NOT mathematical statements:
 1) Happy Birthday!
 2) Message me.
 3) Can we be friends?
 4) 5+1
 5) x+3=0
 6) Mathematics is interesting.
 7) 7 is a lucky number.
Operations on Statements: The
Connectives
Example 3
1. p ∧ q : 1 + 1 = 2 and 2 + 3 = 6.
p :1+1=2
2. r ∨ s : All roses are red or the Philippines has
q :2+3=6 more than 7,100 islands.
r : All roses are red. 3. p → s : If 1+1=2 then the Philippines has
s more than 7,000 islands.
: The Philippines has more
than 7,100 islands. 4. q ↔ r : 2 + 3 = 6 if and only if all roses are
red.
5. ~p : 1+1 ≠ 2
Truth Tables

We consider all possible cases for p

and q (True (T) or False (F)).
Truth Table: Conjunction

p : Maria should submit all requirements.

q : Maria should pass all exams.

p ∧ q : Maria should submit all

requirements and pass all exams.
Truth Table: Disjunction

p : Maria should submit all

requirements.
q : Maria should pass all exams.

p ∨ q : Maria should submit all

requirements or pass all exams.
Truth Table: Conditional

p: Anton is a dean’s lister.

q : Anton receives a gift from his parents.
p → q: If Anton is a dean’s lister then he
receives a gift from his parents
Truth Table: Biconditional

p: Anton is a dean’s lister.

q : Anton receives a gift from his parents.
p ↔ q: Anton receives a gift from his
parents if and only if he is a dean’s
lister.
Truth Table: Negation

p ~p p: Anton is a den’s lister.

T F ~p: Anton is not a dean’s lister.
F T
Truth Table


  In
constructing a truth table, the number of rows is
equal to where is the number of distinct propositional
variables.

 For example, if there are 4 propositional variables,

then the truth table will consist of .
Example 4
Construct a truth table for the following statements
1. p → ~q
2. (~p ∧ q) → ~r
Truth Table: p → ~q

p q ~q p → ~q

T T
T F
F T
F F
Truth Table: p → ~q

p q ~q p → ~q

T T F
T F T
F T F
F F T
Truth Table: p → ~q

p q ~q p → ~q

T T F F
T F T T
F T F T
F F T T
Truth Table: (~p ∧ q) → ~r
Truth Table: (~p ∧ q) → ~r
Truth Table: (~p ∧ q) → ~r
Implication
We know for a fact that all cats are mammals. This means
that if an animal is a cat, then it is a mammal. We can state
this as “If it is a cat, then it is a mammal.”

We call this relation an implication, denoted by “ ⇒ ” .

Hence, if statement p (materially) implies statement q, we
denote this by “p ⇒ q ” (read as p implies q).
Equivalence
We may also have statements which are equivalent.
We usually see this in definitions and compound statements which may
be restated in another way.
Consider the definition “A polygon is a triangle if and only if it has
three sides”. This actually means that the statements
p: A polygon is a triangle.
q: A polygon has three sides.
are equivalent.
In this case, we may replace p with statement q. We denote the
equivalence of two statements p and q by p ⇔ q.
Example 5: Using a truth table, show that
~ ( p ∧ q ) ⇔ ~p ∨ ~q .
Example 5: Using a truth table, show that
~ ( p ∧ q ) ⇔ ~p ∨ ~q .
Negation of simple statements
Negate the statements given in Example 1.1.
Statement Negation

p : 1+1 = 2
q:2+3=6
r : All roses are red.
s : The Philippines has more than
7,100 islands.
Negation of simple statements
Negate the statements given in Example 1.1.
Statement Negation

p : 1+1 = 2 ~p : 1+1 ≠ 2
q:2+3=6 ~q : 2 + 3 ≠ 6
r : All roses are red. ~r : Not all roses are red.

s : The Philippines has more than ~s : The Philippines has at

7,100 islands. Most 7,100 islands.
Negation of Compound Statements
To negate a conjunction or disjunction, we use the
following equivalences:

1. ~ ( p ∧ q ) ⇔ ~p ∨ ~q

2. ~ ( p ∨ q ) ⇔ ~p ∧ ~q
Example 6 Negate the following
statements:
1. The chairs are red and UP is at least 100 years old.
2. 1 + 1 < 5 or all roses are red.
3. Jose Rizal is both intelligent and nationalistic.
Example 6 Negate the following
statements:
1. The chairs are red and UP is at least 100 years old.
2. 1 + 1 < 5 or all roses are red.
3. Jose Rizal is both intelligent and nationalistic.

Negation
 1. The chairs are NOT red or UP is less than 100 years old.
 2. 1+1 ≥ 5 and not all roses are red.
 3. Jose Rizal is not intelligent or he is not nationalistic.
Negation of Statements with Quantifiers

We can also negate statements with the quantifiers all, some,

none. Let us consider the following statements with
quantifiers and their negation.

STATEMENT NEGATION
Some a are b No a is b
Some a are not b All a are b
All a are b Not all a are b
No a is b Some a are b
Negation of Statements with Quantifiers

Example 7 Negate the following statements:

1. p: All roses are red.

~ p: Not all roses are red. ~ p : Some roses are not red.

2. q: Some roses are red.

~ q: No roses are red.
Equivalent Forms for the Conditional

The conditional p → q or "If p then q" is equivalent to the

following statements:

q if p. q is necessary for p.
p only if q. All p are q.
p is sufficient for q. Either not p or q.
Example 8
 If it is a bird then it flies.
The premise is the statement
p: It is a bird.
The conclusion is the statement
q: It flies.
The conditional p → q is equivalent to
1. q if p:
It flies if it is a bird.
2. p only if q:
It is a bird only if it flies.
Example 8
3. p is sufficient for q:
Being a bird is sufficient for it to fly.
4. q is necessary for p.
Flying is necessary for it to be a bird.
5. All p are q. (This is referred to as a universal statement)
All birds fly.
6. Either not p or q.
Either is not a bird or it flies.
The Converse, Inverse, and
Contrapositive
Definition : Given the conditional p → q, we call

1. ~q → ~p the contrapositive of p → q;
2. q → p the converse of p → q;
3. ~p → ~q the inverse of p → q.
Equivalent Statements
converse inverse
P Q
 
𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸𝑸 ⇒ 𝑷 ¬𝑸 ⇒ ¬ 𝑷¬ 𝑷 ⇒ ¬ 𝑸
     

T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T T F T F
F F T T T T
original contrapositive
Hence, we have the equivalent statements:
p → q ⇔ ~q → ~p
q → p ⇔ ~p → ~q
Example 9
 All even numbers are divisible by two.
Formulate the statement as a conditional and give its converse, inverse
and contrapositive.
Conditional : If it is an even number, then i is divisible by two.
Converse : If a number is divisible by two, then it is an even number.
Inverse : If it is not an even number then it is not divisible by two.
Contrapositive: If it is not divisible by two, then it is not an even number.
Valid and Invalid Arguments
 Charles Dodgson, author of Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland and better known as Lewis Caroll, was not
only a famous writer. He was also a mathematician and
logician.

 He created numerous amusing puzzles with absurd

implications and nonsensical statements to train people on
logical reasoning.
Puzzles by Lewis Carrol:
Puzzle 1: All babies are illogical.
Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.
Illogical persons are despised.

Puzzle 2: No kitten that loves fish is unteachable.

No kitten without a tail will play with a gorilla.
Kittens with whiskers always love fish.
No teachable kitten has green eyes.
No kittens have tails unless they have whiskers.
Puzzles by Lewis Carrol:
Puzzle 1: All babies are illogical.
Nobody is despised who can manage a
crocodile.
Illogical persons are despised.

CONCLUSION: Babies cannot manage crocodiles.

Puzzles by Lewis Carrol:
Puzzle 2: No kitten that loves fish is unteachable.
No kitten without a tail will play with a
gorilla.
Kittens with whiskers always love fish.
No teachable kitten has green eyes.
No kittens have tails unless they have
whiskers.
CONCLUSION: If this kitten will play with a gorilla, then it
does not have green eyes. or Only a kitten without green eyes
will play with a gorilla.
Euler Diagrams
An Euler diagram represents statements, the way Venn diagrams
represent sets.
For example, consider the statement
p: Jose is a UP student.
Euler diagram of statement p is given by :
 Example 10: Euler Diagram

All cats are mammals. Some dogs are hairy. No even number is an odd number.
Euler Diagram
Valid and Invalid Arguements
 An argument consists of premises, say p1, p2, ..., pn, and a conclusion q and
consider the conjunction p1∧p2∧... ∧pn = p . The argument p→q is valid if the
premises are assumed to be true, then the conclusion must also hold true.
 We can use Euler diagrams to determine the validity of an argument. We construct
a diagram which represents the premises.
 The argument is valid if the conclusion is satisfied by the Euler diagram
representing all premises.
 Note that the premises are assumed to be true although the statements may not be
true in the strict sense.
Example 11: Valid Arguement
All dogs are hairy. Cotton is a dog. Therefore, Cotton
is hairy.
Example 11: Invalid Arguement

All dogs are hairy. My pet Cotton is hairy. Therefore,

Cotton is a dog.
Example 11: Valid Arguement

All dogs are hairy. My pet Donut is not hairy.

Therefore, Donut is not a dog.
Valid Argument Forms: Modus ponens

If it is a dog then it is hairy. p→q

Cotton is a dog. p
Therefore, Cotton is hairy Therefore q
Valid Argument Forms: Modus Tollens

If it is a dog then it is hairy. p→q

My pet Donut is not hairy. ~q
Therefore, Donut is a dog. Therefore ~p
Valid Argument Form: Syllogism

If it is a cat, then it is a mammal.

If it is a mammal then it is an animal.
Therefore, if it is a cat, then it is an animal.

p→q
q→r
Therefore p → r
Valid Argument Forms

1. (Modus ponens) [(p →q) ∧ p] → q

2. (Modus tollens) [(p → q) ∧ ~q] → ~p.

3. (Syllogism) [(p →q) ∧ (q → r) ] → (p → r)

Tautology

 Ifthe statement is true for each of the four cases in

the truth table, then the argument is valid.

 In this case, we call the statement a tautology

Tautology: Modus Ponens
Tautology: Modus Ponens
Tautology: Modus Ponens
Tautology: Modus Tollens
Tautology: Syllogism
Fallacies

Fallacy of the Converse Fallacy of the Inverse

p→q p→q
q ~p
Therefore p Therefore ~ q
Fallacies
Fallacies
Example 12: Fallacies

1. All dogs are hairy. My pet Cotton is hairy.

Therefore, Cotton is a dog.

2. All cats are mammals. My pet Donut is not a cat.

Therefore, Donut is not a mammal.
Other Fallacies
1. Ad Hominem. The argument is based on the character of the opponent
instead of the argument itself. This may also involve insulting the opponent
to make opponent’s argument seem false.
Example: Maria wears leather shoes, so she cannot be a vegetarian.

2. Ad Populum. This fallacy occurs when an argument is assumed to be valid

since many people believe in it.
Example: Surveys indicate that 55% of the population believe that use of
contraceptives is dangerous. Therefore, contraceptives should be banned.
Other Fallacies
3. Appeal to Authority. The argument is claimed to be valid because a
famous or famous person, who is not an expert in the pertinent field, supports it.
Example: Brand X is the best toothpaste since our president uses it.
4. False Cause. This fallacious argument correlates two events, even if
unrelated.
Example: Every time I go to sleep, the sun goes down. Therefore my going to sleep
causes the sun to set.
5. Hasty Generalization. In this fallacy, a generalization is made based on a few
examples supporting the claim.
Example: I don’t excel in tennis. I also don’t excel in volleyball. Therefore, I don’t
excel in sports.
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

 If you love solving sudoku puzzles, rubiks cube, logic, or

pattern problems, these recreational activities are also
forms of problem solving which basically involves finding
a conclusion or answer from known facts.
 We discuss here two processes of reasoning, deductive and
inductive, and use these to solve some problems.
Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning (or logical deduction) is the process of

reasoning from a general statement to a specific instance.
We have seen this in the valid argument forms given in the
previous sections.
The classic example of a deductive argument:
All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates
is mortal.
Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from

specific instances to a general statement.

The following is an example of an inductive argument:

2 is an even number. 12 is an even number. 22 is an

even number.
Therefore, all numbers ending in 2 are even.
Reference
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idrBG11dtBo
Mathematical Ideas, C.D. Miller, V. Heeren, J. Hornsby, C. Heeren, Pearson,2015.
Mathematics in Life, Society, and the World, H. Parks, G. Musser, R.Burton,Hornsby
W. Siebler, Prentice Hall, 1977.
Mathematics: A Human Endeavor, H.R. Jacobs, W.H. Freeman and Co1977.
An Introduction to Mathematical Reasoning, P. Eccles, Cambridge University
Press, 1998.
Sources from the web:
a. https://owlcation.com/humanities/Logical-Fallacies-Logical-Fallaciesand-
How-They-Are-Used
b. http://www.math.hawaii.edu/~hile/math100/logice.htm
c. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/mario-livio/logicalfallacies_
b_1932906.html
d. http://www.fallacydetective.com/articles/categoriescategory/fallacies/