Joseline Research

Research Methods Two
Musobozi Paul Stephen
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Themes that will be covered
1) Literature review in research
2) Doing the research project
3) Population and sampling
4) Data collection methods
5) Questionnaires and interviews
6) Descriptive statistics
7) Measures of dispersion
8) Measures of relationships
9) Data processing and analysis
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10) Publication of findings/ reporting results of research

Research Methods
 Think about It.
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Research Methods
 Think about it
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Why is Research at the University important?
Preface
What is the nature of research at the university?
At different levels, the research varies in relation to the scope and magnitude.
Research at university mainly focuses on generation of knew knowledge.
The knowledge is theoretical and practical but as indicated in this slide, there are
variations according to the level of training.
At some levels for example undergraduate, knowledge in research is theory-

based and thus ‘not very practical’.
 Research conducted at university may not be in response to current social

problems or issues.
Researchers (students) are simply striving for the truth.
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 The research conducted in a university setting has traditionally been seen as

academic discourse.
 What are the values of academic research?
 Is it still important for university scholars to endeavor to conduct academic

research?
Values Academic Research?
 Academic research is required in order to obtain novel information or to create

new knowledge.
 New knowledge is the truth, and seeking for the truth is the main basis for
academic research.
 Researchers in the university have a strong interest in pursuing unusual ideas

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and being the first to discover new information in their chosen field.
 Academic research aims at making educational impact when new knowledge is
revealed.
 Researchers have the responsibility to disseminate new knowledge to the
community, including scholars, students and the general public.
 Often times, researchers at university publish their research findings in top-tier
academic journals, since their data might prove to be relevant to scholars in related
fields.
 They also share their research findings at conferences and in seminars so as to
inspire scholars in their own discipline e.g MMU.
 The publication and presentation of academic research therefore facilitates however

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more research, which subsequently results in an advancement of the field.

 This is what motivates researchers at university the most.
 On the other hand, many researchers are also teachers when they disseminate
the knowledge they have gained to students during lectures.
 However researchers who work for industry are expected to keep their
discoveries private, those in academic institutions are encouraged to publicize
the outcome of their research.
 Their research findings are made freely available to everybody.
 Essentially, it is important that researchers are willing to share their data
among the community for further investigation. 07/27/2020 8

Academic habits
Certain habits can be found in the majority of academic researchers in a traditional

research university setting.
Strong creativity among researchers is significant. Since the aim of academic research
is to create new knowledge, researchers at university must make an effort to be
creative.
Principal investigators encourage the more junior researchers, in order to give them
incentive to discover new information for themselves.
In addition to creativity, attitude is central to the spirit of academics.
Those who can think critically and have a skeptical attitude are more likely to notice
things that have never previously been discovered, or think of ideas or theories that
have never previously been considered.
Academics who have active research programs always think critically about the issues
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around them.
 Habits of “research” should not be limited to university life alone.
 Scholars also show intellectual curiosity when they are away from their normal
university setting.
 They are willing to cross boundaries to do research even when it might take
them outside their usual area of expertise.
 When scholars cross from one discipline to another, the concepts in one field
might be extended to the other; this might facilitate developments in creativity
in terms of ideas and knowledge transfer.
 To an academic, research is their way of life rather than simply a job.
 The values they treasure, and the practices they value in the research
environment, are also applied to their daily life.
 There is no distinction between being on campus or off. 07/27/2020 10

Research designs
Introduction
In research, there are numerous designs that are appropriate for the different
types of research projects.
The choice of which design to apply depends on the nature of the problems
posed by the research aims.
Each type of research design has a range of research methods that are
commonly used to collect and analyse the type of information that is generated
by the investigations.
Here is a list of some of the more common research designs, with a short
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explanation of the characteristics of each.

Research designs
 Categories of designs
Historical
Descriptive Correlation Comparative

Experimental
Simulation Evaluation Action Ethnographical
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Research designs
Historical
It is a systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to
establish facts and draw conclusions about past events.
In this design, information can be obtained from primary historical data, such as
archaeological remains as well as documentary sources of the past.
It is usually necessary to carry out tests in order to check the authenticity of these
sources.
Besides informing us about what happened in previous times and re-evaluating beliefs
about the past, historical research can be used to find contemporary solutions based on
the past and to inform the present and future trends.

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It stresses the importance of interactions and their effects.
Research designs
Descriptive
This type of investigation relies on observation as a means of collecting data.
It attempts to examine situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e. what can
be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances.
Observation’ can take many forms. Depending on the type of information sought,
people can be interviewed, questionnaires distributed, visual records made, even
sounds and smells recorded.
It is vital that the observations are written down or recorded in some way, so that
they can be subsequently analysed.
The scale of the research is influenced by two major factors: the level of
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complexity of the survey and the scope or extent of the survey.

Research designs
Correlation
The design is used to examine a relationship between two concepts.
 There are two broad classifications of relational statements i.e. an association
between two concepts – where there is some kind of influence of one on the other
and a causal relationship – where one causes changes to occur in the other.
Causal statements describe what is sometimes called a ‘cause and effect’
relationship.
The cause is referred to as the ‘independent variable’, the variable that is
affected is referred to as the ‘dependent variable’.

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Research designs
 The correlation between two concepts can either be none (no correlation);
positive (where an increase in one results in the increase in the other, or
decrease results in a decrease).
 Or else, the correlation can be negative (where the increase in one results in
the decrease in the other or vice versa).
 The degree of association is often measurable.
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Research designs
Comparative
The design is used to compare past and present or different parallel situations,particularly
when the researcher has no control over events e.g land slides.
It can look at situations at different scales, macro (international, national) or micro
(community, individual).
Comparison is used to identify similarities in order to predict results – assuming that if two
events are similar in certain characteristics, they could well be similar in others too.
The comparative design is used to explore and test what conditions were necessary to
cause certain events, so that it is possible,for example, to understand the likely effects of
making certain decisions.
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Research designs
Experimental
Experimental research attempts to isolate and control every relevant condition
which determines the events investigated and then observes the effects when the
conditions are manipulated.
At its simplest, changes are made to an independent variable and the effects are
observed on a dependent variable i.e. observing the cause and effect.
Even if experiments can be done to explore a particular event, they usually
require a hypothesis (prediction) to be formulated first in order to determine what
variables are to be tested and how they can be controlled and measured.
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Research designs
 There are several classes of experiment – true, virtual, etc. which are
characterized by the amount of checking and control involved in the methods.
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Research designs
Simulation
Simulation involves devising a representation in a small and simplified form (model) of
a system,which can be manipulated to gauge effects.
It is similar to experimental design in the respect of this manipulation, but it provides
a more artificial environment in that it does work with original materials at the same
scale.
Models can be mathematical (number crunching in a computer) or physical, working
with two- or three-dimensional materials.
The performance of the model must be checked and regulated against the real
system to check that the results are reliable.

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Simulation enables theoretical situations to be tested.
Research designs
Evaluation
It is an expressive type of research that is specifically designed to deal with

complex social issues.
It aims to move beyond just getting the facts by trying to make sense of the
many human, political, social, cultural and contextual elements involved.
There are a range of different approaches of evaluation models, for example,

systems analysis -which is a holistic type of research looking at the complex
interplay of many variables; and responsive evaluation – which entails a series of
investigative steps to evaluate how responsive a programme is to all those taking
part in it.
 A common purpose of evaluation research is to examine the working of projects

from the point of view of levels of awareness, costs and07/27/2020
benefits, cost-21
effectiveness, attainment of objectives and quality assurance.
Research designs
 The results are generally used to prescribe changes to improve and develop
the situation.
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Research designs
Action
Essentially, this is an ‘on the spot’ procedure, principally designed to deal with a
specific problem found in a particular situation.
There is no attempt made to separate the problem from its context in order to
study it in isolation.
What are thought to be useful changes are made and then constant monitoring
and evaluation are carried out to see the effects of the changes.
 The conclusions from the findings are applied immediately, and further
monitored to gauge their effectiveness.
 Action research depends mainly on observation and behavioural data.
Action research is so bound up in a particular situation, it is difficult to generalize

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the results, i.e. the action will be successful in another context.
Research designs
Ethnological
Ethnological research focuses on nation, people and culture.
In this approach, the researcher is interested to know how the subjects of the
research interpret their own behaviour rather than imposing a theory from outside.
Ethnographic researchers are interested to study the people and physical, socio-
political, personal cultural and historical aspects of their life.
It a form of field research that studies cultures.
Employs a holistic approach i.e. it studies cultures and interprets life in a cultural
context.
It is conducted in a natural setting and entails a total sinking in the field of study.
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Research designs
 Constructs culture through an in-depth studies and the meanings of the
participants.
 Stresses subjectivity i.e. there is subjective soaking and subjective transilation
which are common in the research model.
 It takes place in the undisturbed natural settings of the subjects’ environment.
 It regards the context to be as equally important as the actions it studies, and
attempts to represent the totality of the social, cultural and economic situation.
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Research designs
 It is rarely made explicit because of cultural hidden aspects.
 The cultural background and assumptions of the researcher may excessively
influence the interpretations and descriptions.
 Confusions can be produced by the use of language and the different meanings
which may be given by the respondents and researcher.
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The research project
Introduction
This session introduces you to the process of designing research projects and the
focus is put a ‘student’.
In the near future, students will be expected to design and execute a research
project as part of your studies.
The type of structure you will construct will contain factors to motivate your
thinking, to set time and resource parameters.
Also, you will choose your topic and methods of sampling, data collection and
analysis.
If you are sure that these are the methods want to employ, you will pay
attention to them through out your study.
Note: The choice of your design will motivate you to ask relevant questions
before you complete the research design . 07/27/2020 27
Pre-design decisions
Your research area of focus (topic) and the (methods) will require a design.
Before you begin the construction of your design, it is imperative to consider the
basic issue that require your attention.
You will assist yourself to do a worthy job with less difficulty and quality work.
Endevour to study institutional guidelines on how research is conducted and

presented. That should be priority.
Be close to your supervisor because they have a better understanding of the
nature of research and can provide useful suggestions.
Be in the know of the breadth and depth of your research ambitions. That
means, consider what you can manage to study and avoid focusing on what you
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cannot examine.
 Use your time constructively, by planning your research study systematically. This
means, if you set the timeline, use them to guide use them to guide you
throughout.
 Resources are important for any study whatever their nature and amount. Make
sure that they are assessed within the parameters of the research. Resources must
be used wisely.
 Limit; before you engage in the designing the research topic, check the following;
i) Whether permission can be obtained
ii) Whether a record of permission is required
iii) Whether this will limit the publication of your findings (will you own the
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data?)
Topic design and Methodology
The theme of today is meant to introduce students to the process of designing
research topics.
Choosing the topic for research sometimes depends on personal interests. Therefore,
choose a topic by taking into account factors wider than your personal interest.
Make sure you choose a topic that is suitable to your research because the topic will
require you to consider relevant methods to use.
Topics tie you to down to a domain and research path that will be critical for you
throughout the research.
Choose the topic within your interests but also within your research possibilities.
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Choosing a topic
When you are choosing a topic for study, there are important conditions that you (a
researcher) must consider.
The topic should be in the area of your expertise. You must have basic knowledge of
the topic and its theoretical and methodological setting. You will reduce later difficulties
and unwelcome surprises.
You should be able to handle the topic within the time parameters of the institutional
regulations.
You need to consider the resources as well as accessibility to the research field. Topic
that are hard to access can cause serious problems and delays in your research.
The topic must be researchable in general terms and also you are able to apply the
methods of data collection. You cannot study issues that are not accessible to empirical
analysis e.g The nature of life after death.

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Procedure of formulating the research topic
Formulating a researchable topic will take you a lot of time thinking about how to
express it.
This step allows you to refine your topic and make it clear and specific.
If your topic is too general or tool large for the project, you have a chance to
reduce it in content and focus.
Let us focus on the important tasks that you need to perform to establish sound
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foundations for your research project.
What do you need to do?
Explore your research topic : i.e. you need to read enough to be able to
speak with confidence about the theoretical and conceptual parameters of the
topic. Also talk to experts for instance (academics who know about the topic) or
people associated with the research topic may give you insights.
Define the research topic accurately : for instance, if you are a quantitative
researcher, it is important to define your research topic clearly and spherically so
that there is no doubt about its nature and measurement.
Operationalise the topic: operationalising the topic is about making it work.

This will help you to measure general concepts thus you will need to establish
indicators and other elements that will make measurement easier, more accurate
and more precise.
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 Develop a hypothesis if any: does the study require a hypothesis? Hypothesis
may apply for some and not in all studies. For example, when you are using
inferential statistics, hypotheses are required.
Sampling
 After establishing your area of focus or the research topic, you will have to
make another decision.
 That means the study samples who may be people or other materials that you
will include in the study.
 The sampling process will require a researcher to know what is the types and
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the methods of obtaining the sample.
 Questions to answer when you are determining the sample for your study.
i) Which sampling procedure do I require to choose appropriate sample?
ii) When and where will the respondents be studied?
iii) How large will the sample be?
iv) Is the sampling framework required? If yes, is one available?
v) How representative will the sample be?
vi) Are the required time, funds and staffing available? If yes, how can
they be rationally employed?
vii) How will I deal with non-response within the study?
viii) Do I need to consider ethical issue and objectivity at this stage, and
how will such requirements be met? 07/27/2020 35
Data Collection
At this stage of the research design, a researcher must explain clearly how the required
information will be collected.
Questions to be answered when a researcher is preparing for the data collection exercise.
i) Which method or methods can I employ to gather the data?
ii) Will the assistants be required during this stage of research?
iii) Do the documents need to be printed and distributed in some way to

respondent?
iv) What kind of qualities will the assistants need to have?
v) What kind of procedures have been introduced to deal with the possible
non-response?
vi) Is there need to check data collection for fairness, accuracy, reliability and
so on?
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Data Analysis
After data collection, information is processed and analysed. Therefore, a researcher
has to decide which type of analysis is required. The kind of analysis depends on the
kind of research methods chosen.
i) Will the researcher need assistance in data entry and processing?
ii) Will the analysis be quantitative or qualitative?
iii) If the analysis is quantitative, will I need to use a computer?
iv) If so, is the computer equipped with appropriate programmes?
v) For qualitative research, will the research need assistance with
transcription of the results or other tasks? 07/27/2020 37

Reporting
After the analysis, the findings of the study have to be published to those who
will consume or use the knowledge.
However, the nature and content of the report will depend on the requirements
of your institution.
Your organisation may dictate the format of presentation, the report size,
number of copies etc.
The report will depend on the nature of your study, the underlying methodology
and the nature of the data.

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Stating and structuring the problem statement
 Introduction
 The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important step of
the research process.
 A research problem is like identifying a destination before the start of a
journey.
 A research problem is like the foundation of a building.
 The type and architecture of the building depends on the foundations.
 If the foundation is well designed and strong, you can expect the building to
be strong as well. 07/27/2020 39

 A researcher must have a clear idea with regard to what it is that you want to
find out but not what you think you must find.
 A research problem can begin with something simple to something very
complex, depending on the nature of the research theme.
 When choosing a research problem for your study, there are a few factors
which you need to consider.
 These requirements are shown in the table in the following slide. Study them
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carefully.
 Research starts with delineating the research problem, i.e. what we want to
solve and what questions we want to answer.
 The justification a potential researcher describes a problem statement.
 In today’s lesson, we shall deal how to structure a problem statement in
research.
 This lesson is important because it is an igniting key to the process of doing
real research.
 It requires you to be attentive and be creative.
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 Kimberly & Amy (2005) view a research problem as ;
i) A snapshot of the research
ii) The foundation of the research
iii) The Heart of the research
iv) A “taste” of the research
v) A blueprint for the study
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What is a research problem?
A problem statement is a concise description of an issue to be addressed or a
condition to be improved upon.
Likewise, a research problem is a definite or clear expression (statement) about
an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated,
or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within
existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.
A research problem describes an unresolved problem or contradiction, or an
explanation of something important that we need to know. 07/27/2020 43

 A research problem can be defined as a statement which clearly and simply
states the purpose of the research.
 A research problem could present itself as a condition to be improved upon, a
difficulty or deficiency to be overcome, or a gap in knowledge that exists in
scholarly literature that is to be filled, or theory that requires meaningful
understanding.
 The intention of stating a research problem is to get the reader's attention,
establish the significance of the research, and signal what the the research will
contribute to.
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 In the structure of a problem statement, a researcher needs to reflect on the
following questions.
 What is the overriding problem? Is the problem ‘retention of pupils in UPE
pupils in schools, risky working conditions, threatening healthy, decreasing
ethics, values and moral?’
 Where is the problem found? Is the problem found in the education sector,
health administration, labour industry, in a definite society?
 What needs to be done to solve the problem? Do we need to s urvey;
interview; create a new model; determine what experts believe; evaluate;
meta-analyze, conduct an experiment; benchmark. 07/27/2020 45

 While developing a research problem, you will provide evidence that this the
issue in question is serious and in need of further investigation.
 A researcher will convince the reader that the problem can be solved with the
methodology selected.
 A researcher will explain what specific methodology you will use to solve the
problem.
 The reader will know that it is important that this study be done with the
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methodology you have chosen to solve it!

 To show that there is need to carry out an investigation, the researcher in his
or her proposal develops a statement which is called ‘statement of the
problem’.
 It identifies the gap between the current state and desired (goal) state of a
process or product.
 The statement of the problem is followed by a statement of the 'gap' that the
research aims to address.
 The 'gap' could refer to an unresolved question, a paradox, a missing piece of
information, a theoretical inconsistency or to some other weakness within

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existing understandings of the phenomenon under study.

 A problem statement focuses on the following basic questions
i) What is the overriding problem (it should short and precise)?
ii)What is the population and sample that are affected by this problem?
iii) What type of study will this be?
iv) Will this study be qualitative or quantitative?
v) What type of methodology will be used?
vi) What type of data will be collected?
vii) What possible outcomes are expected?

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Consideration factor Explanation
1. Interest - It is the most important condition in selecting a

research problem.
- If you choose a topic which does not greatly
interest you, it would become difficult to keep up
the motivation to write.
2. Expertise - Before selecting a research problem, you need

to ensure that you met certain level of expertise in
the area you are proposing.
-Use of the facts you learned during the study and
of course your research supervisors will lend a
hand as well.
- You need to do most of the work yourself.
3.Data availability If your research title needs collection of

Information before finalising the title, you need to
make sure you have these materials available and
in the relevant format. 07/27/2020 49
Consideration factor Explanation
4. Relevance - Always choose a topic that suits your interest
and profession.
- Ensure that your study adds to the existing body
of knowledge.
- This will help you to sustain interest throughout
the research period.
5. Ethics -In formulating the research problem, you

should consider some ethical issues as well.
-Sometimes, during the research period, the

study population might be adversely affected by
some questions.
-For example in conducting a research in medical

health, some scenarios might occur especially
research related information security, which might
concern certain authorities.
- It is always good for you to identify ethics related

issues during the research problem formulation
itself
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Three types of research problem
There are three types of research problem
Theoretical research problem: It is the theoretical explanation of a research problem.
It gives only theory and meaning of the problem. It defines the problem theoretically.
This type of research has no need of hypothesis and verification.
Features
i) It is exploratory
ii) It is theoretical in nature
iii) It provides basic meaning 07/27/2020 51

 Applied research problem: An applied social research problem is a practical
use of the theoretical knowledge. In that type the field work and visits to the
problematic situation is necessary. It has the design of hypothesis and
verification.
 Features
i) It is practical in nature
ii) It has exploratory hypothesis
ii) It wants the verification
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 Action research problem: Action research problem is that one for which the
immediate solution is required. It has millions of problems in the world that
type of research is continuous and needs quick solution in emergency basis.
 Features
i) It is welfare oriented.
ii) It is service oriented.
iii) It is sensitive and immediate decision required for solution.
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 Problem Statement Characteristics
 These characteristics are designed to generate a problem statement that will
provide the reader with sufficient information to understand the problem in
detail.
 A well structured problem statement will enable the reader to know how big
the to be investigated is ; if it is getting worse; who suffers; where and when it
occurs; how dangerous it is; and what we have tried to do in the past.
1)- Magnitude- How big is it? Suppose the challenge is malnutrition, what is
the rate of occurrence per 1000 or 100,000 population or what

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percentage of the populations suffers from the problem.
2)- Rate of change-Is it getting worse, getting better, or staying the same?
How has the occurrence of the problem changed over time? Compare the
same measures over time.
3)- Persons affected-Who is impacted by the problem/behavior? Who is

involved in the behavior and who else is impacted by it? Depending on the
problem/behavior people other than the user may be impacted. For example
alcohol related car crashes, family members of alcohol abusers, among
others.
4)- Spatial/ geographic-Where does the behavior/problem occur? Depending on

the problem, the answer will vary, but knowing where the behavior happens
is an important piece of data for identifying intervening variables and
ultimately programs, policies and practices.
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5)- Time- When does the behavior occur? Depending on the problem, the answer will
vary, but knowing when the issue happens is an important piece of data for
identifying intervening variables and ultimately programs, policies, and practices. Does
the issue happen during the week, weekends only, late at night, or early in the
morning, etc.?
6)- Seriousness-How hazardous is the issue? For example Marijuana use, that causes
very severe long term irreparable damage to the user’s health.
7)- System response-How has the system responded to the problem? What
programs, policies, and practices are currently in place to deal with the
problem/behavior? Describe the existing system’s response to the problem/behavior.
This information will be useful in identifying gaps in system services and responses to
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the issue.
 A good problem statement will meet each of the following criteria
1- Identify one issue or problem at a time.
2- Avoid blame for example the problem is “young people in our
neighborhood do not have enough positive activities.
3- Avoid naming specific solutions for instance the problem is not “we don’t
have a youth center”—the problem may be “young people in our
neighborhood are getting into trouble during after school hours” for
which a youth center may be one element of an overall.
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4- Define the problem by the behaviors and conditions that affect it. Good
problem statements frame the issue as either not enough good
conditions/behaviors or too many bad conditions/behaviors e.g., “Too
many young adults are using methamphetamine drugs.”
5- Are issues specific enough to be measurable.
6-Reflect community concerns as heard during the assessment process.
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What is the importance of the problem statement in research?
Problem statement tells the reader the reason behind the research.
The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research
questions or hypotheses to follow.
Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what
is to be investigated.
Also researchers seeking for grant from research funding organisations are
required to submit a project proposal, which is a statement of carefully articulated
research problem and the proposed ways or methods at solving it.
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 Formulated, feasible and appropriate research problem provides the basis for
research questions, objectives and hypotheses development and testing, the
result of which constitute the findings on which conclusion on the attainment of
the research objectives and its contributions to knowledge.
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 Examples of stated problem statements
The first example
Community-based organizations such as Family Service Association (FSA) have a special

responsibility to protect young people from becoming affected with HIV. The
consequences of decisions made too young can lead to the devastation and death
from AIDS. Although there are new treatments that have reduced the AIDS death
rates for youth, there has been no decline in the number of new HIV infections
among young people. Any young person who engages in the normal
experimentation and sexual curiosity that mark adolescence as a development
period is at some risk for HIV infection, especially in geographic regions with high
HIV prevalence. But, as it does with adults, HIV and AIDS most threaten youth who
already face poverty, social inequality and other power differentials in relationships,
poor access to health care, and homelessness. Homeless and runaway street
youth, and those at risk as juvenile offenders and other young people who
exchange sex for drugs, money or affection are particularly at risk.07/27/2020 61
Literature review in research
Introduction
Reviewing literature is another important aspect in research be academic, action

and other types of research.
In this topic, you will be interfacing with what literature review means, why the
review of related literature is important in research studies, how it is done and how
to structure it.
What I have to remind you of is, the practice of reviewing related literature in
research is an intensive activity.
It requires you to be able to dedicate time to find the relevant data that fits your
study area.
Reviewing literature is not re-writing someone’s or existing information but

analyse the data and relate the facts to your research focus.
What is a Literature Review?
The literature review is a critical discussion and summary of writings that is of
`general' and `specialised' relevance to the particular area and topic of the
research problem.
A literature review is a comprehensive overview of prior research regarding a
speciﬁc topic.
The review of literature shows the reader what is known about a topic, and what
is not yet known, thereby setting up the rationale or need for a new investigation,
which is what the actual study to which the literature review is attached seeks to
do.
What does the activity of reviewing literature includes
Literature review highlights what has been done so far in the field of interest and
how your findings relate to earlier research.
The review also traces the general patterns of the findings and the conclusions that
can be made based on the findings.
The review gives an overview on findings based on previous research work done at
the time of research period.
Review of literature also reveals techniques and statistical procedures that have not
been attempted by others.

 Literature reviews include a comprehensive overview of a general topic.
 Furthermore, the review of literature could justify whether your work is an
extension of what others have done or indicates whether you are trying to
replicate earlier studies in a different context.
 The review of literature also indicates the approaches,methods, variables used
and statistical procedure.

Types of Sources for Review
There are two types of sources to obtain the information for reviewing literature.
These are as follows:
Primary review: Information can be obtained from diaries, autobiographies,
research reports, empirical research articles, letters or correspondence.
Secondary review: describing or building a summary of data that is not coming
from original research work. For example a review article (filtered sources)
academic journal articles (other than empirical research articles or reports),
conference proceedings, books (monographs or chapters’ books), documentaries.

Review Of Literature Procedures
It is important for the researcher to have a specific idea of what he or she wants
to research.
This is because there is danger in reviewing literature without having a
reasonably specific idea of what you want to study.
 Therefore, try to draft your main idea before proceeding to review the literature.
Generally there are 4 steps in literature review, as demonstrated by the figure in
the next slide.

Step 1: Search the Existing Literature in your Research Area of Interest
Once you choose your topic of interest, make sure it is a well-researched area
and well studied which could give you more lines of research to choose from.
Narrow your topics so that you can cover in depth.
Now, you can proceed to search the existing literature. To effectively search
literature, have in mind some idea of the broad subject area and the problem you
wish to investigate.
The first task would be compiling a bibliography in your research area. Books and
journals are always the best sources for literature in particular research area.
Step 2: Review the Literature Obtained
Once you have identified several journals and books, the next thing to do is to
start reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are associated
with your research topic.
That is the bottom line of doing a review.
Have a framework or theme to begin your research with, i.e. use a separate jot
down the main points you extract from journal articles and books.
Once you create a rough framework, you may slot in the extracted information
accordingly.
 As you read further, do some critical review with particular references to the
following aspects:
i) Note the theories put forward, critics, methods used (sample size, data
used, measurement procedure)
ii) Note whether the knowledge relevant to your designed framework has
been confirmed beyond doubt
iii) Find differences of opinions among researchers and jot down your
opinions about their validity.
iv) Examine the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge

Step 3: Develop a Theoretical Framework
Reviewing the literature can be a never-ending undertaking.
You must know that with the limited time you have to complete your research, it
is important for you to set the boundary and parameters by looking into literature
relevant to your research topic.
Every information you obtain from literature sources must be sorted out
accordingly with the themes and issues you put in your framework.
Unless you review the literature with regard to the framework you developed,
you will not be able to develop a focus in your literature search.
Therefore the theoretical framework will provide you a base and guide to read
further.
The best practice would be to develop a framework first and then dive into
literature search or vice versa.
Step 4: Writing up the Literature Review
The final task would be compiling and writing all the literature you read and reviewed.
Begin your review with some theme or points that you want to emphasise.
Organise and list all the themes you would like to discuss and relate.
Organisation is of utmost importance and make the structure known to your reader.
While writing, identify and describe various theories relevant to your field and specify
gaps in body of the knowledge in that area.
Proceed to explain recent advances in the area of study as well as current trends
Common Weaknesses
Usually, beginners in research make the following mistakes as soon as they start
writing the review of literature.
a) The review made is a mere description of various materials without
making an effort to show the relation between the studies and main
objective of the research topic.
b) Students tend to cut and paste, NOT be encouraged at all in
academics. Original works should be cited and quoted.
c) Journals or reports that are included are not critically evaluated.
Critically evaluate the research questions, the methodology used and
recommendations made by the researcher.

 Functions of reviewing literature review: Revising literature can be time-

consuming and discouraging. However, it is always rewarding.
The importance of literature review
Review of literature helps to shape the research problem because the process of
reviewing the literature assists a researcher to understand the subject area better and
thus helps to conceptualise the research problem clearly and precisely.
It gives a wider knowledge base for research area. One of the most important
objectives of literature review is to ensure that you read widely around the subject area
in which you intend to conduct research study.
Contextualising Research Findings:Obtaining answers for the research questions is
easy. It aids the researcher to put the findings in the context of what is already known
and understood in the field of research.

 By doing a review of literature, a researcher does not run the risk of
reinventing the wheel, that means wasting efforts on trying to rediscover
something that is already known or published in the research arena. Therefore,
through literature review, you could ensure originality and new contribution in
the research work but not everything.
 It describes how the proposed research is related to prior research in statistics.
 It shows the originality and relevance of your research problem. Specifically, if
your research is different from other statisticians.
 It justifies your proposed methodology.
 It demonstrates your preparedness to complete the research.

Research aims, objectives, Research questions or Hypothesis
Introduction
A critical task in any research project is defining its core objectives or questions.
What is the central goal or purpose of the research?
What research topics, questions or problems does the project intend to address,
and why?
Many projects get into difficulty because not enough time and thought is devoted
at the start to properly defining the project’s research goals.
As a result, precious time and resources can be wasted collecting irrelevant or
unnecessary research data.

 This section focuses on the process of defining a project’s research objectives and
questions.
 It offers tips on how to ensure your research objectives and questions are well thought
out and clearly expressed.
 The section provides examples of written research objectives, research questions and
hypotheses.
 As a student, you have a task to put in extra effort to practice in order to develop the
skill in designing research objective, questions and hypotheses.

 What are research aims, objectives, questions and hypotheses?
 In a research context, the terms ‘research objectives’, ‘research questions’ and
‘research hypotheses’ have specific meanings.
Research aim
 The term research aim usually refers to the main goal or overarching purpose
of a research project.
 Sentences declaring the aim of a project are usually quite brief and to the
point.
 An example is: Aim: To investigate factors associated with partner violence.

 Research aims are almost always positioned at the very beginning of a
statement of research aims and objectives.
 Research aim is a statement indicating the general intention or purpose of a
research project. Usually a research project will have only one broad aim.
Research objectives
 A research aim will usually be followed by a series of statements describing a
project’s research objectives.
 Specific statements indicating the key issues to be focused on in a research
project.
 Usually a research project will have several specific research objectives.

 Research objectives indicate in more detail the specific research topics or issues the
project plans to investigate, building on the main theme stated in the research aim.
 Normally at least two or three research objectives will be stated. It is good practice
to put these in a numbered list so they can be clearly identified later in a proposal or
report.
 An example of a set of research objectives:
Objective 1: To examine whether alcohol consumption is associated with

increased partner violence.
Objective 2: To examine whether labour force status (employment,

unemployment, not in the labour force) is associated with
variations in the incidence of partner violence.
Objective 3: To explore the differences between couples with an extended history

of partner violence and couples with only a brief, recent history
of partner violence.
 Research questions
 Research questions can be developed from theoretical knowledge, previous
research or experience, or a practical need at work.
 Research have numerous roles, such as identifying the importance of the
research, providing a framework, direction and cohesion, and setting the limits
by revealing the boundaries of the study and highlighting the type of data to be
collected.
Quantitative research questions
 There are quantitative and qualitative research questions. They are explained in
the next slide.
Quantitative research questions
 These tend to be precise and can be categorised as ‘descriptive’, ‘comparative’

or ‘relationship’. Quantitative research questions include.
Descriptive:Seeks to quantify responses to one or more variables. Often begins

with ‘What is…?’ or ‘What are…?’.
 Comparative:Seeks to compare two or more groups for some outcome

variable. Often uses words such as ‘compare’.
Relationships: concerned with trends between or among two or more

variables. Often uses words such as ‘relate’, ‘relationship’, ‘association’ and ‘trend’.
Qualitative research questions
 These can represent broad or central areas of research or specific areas or sub-
categories.
 Like quantitative questions, qualitative questions link to research design,

including historical/narrative, case study, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded
theory and ethnography.
Generally, these questions are non-directional and use words that state that the
study will: ‘discover’ (grounded theory), ‘explain’ or ‘seek to understand’
(ethnography), ‘explore a process’ or ‘describe the experiences’ (phenomenology).
Researchers can often find developing qualitative questions difficult.
To help researchers think about the different types and purposes of their studies.
Types of qualitative research question
Contextual: Describes the form or nature of what exists.
Explanatory: Examines the reasons for or associations between what exists.
Evaluative: Appraises the effectiveness of what exists.
Generative: Provides new ideas, aiding the development of theories, strategies

or actions.
Ideological: Advances the ideology of a position.
Exploratory: Investigates a phenomenon where little is understood.
Explanatory: Explains a phenomenon
Descriptive : Tries to describe a phenomenon.
Emancipatory: Engages in social action related to a phenomenon.

Developing Hypothesis
The meaning of hypothesis
A hypothesis is a speculative statement that describes the relation between two

or more variables.
Creswell(1994) describes a hypothesis as a formal statement that presents the

expected relationship between an independent and dependent variable.
An hypothesis is a statement or explanation that is suggested by knowledge or

observation but has not, yet, been proved or disproved (Macleod Clark J and
Hockey L 1981).
Nature of Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what is intended to be investigated.
It should be specified before research is conducted and openly stated in reporting
the results.
A hypothesis or hypotheses comprise the following
1- It can be tested – verifiable or falsifiable
2- Hypotheses are not moral or ethical questions
3- It is neither too specific nor to general
4- It is a prediction of consequences
5- It is considered valuable even if proven false

Types of Hypotheses
Null Hypotheses are designated by( H0 or HN).
The null hypothesis represents a theory that has been put forward, either because it
is believed to be true or because it is to be used as a basis for argument, but has not
been proved.
Alternative Hypotheses is designated by H1 or HA.
The alternative hypothesis is a statement of what a hypothesis test is set up to
establish.
Opposite of Null Hypothesis. Only reached if H0 is rejected.
 Frequently “alternative hypothesis” is actual desired conclusion of the researcher!

Writing of citations and referencing in during reviewing of
related literature in research
Introduction
The purpose of a quotation (citation) is to provide enough bibliographic information
for the reader to be able to identify and, if necessary, obtain the original resource.
By using citations and references, you acknowledge the work of others and show how
their ideas have contributed to your own work.
It is also a way of demonstrating that you have read and understood key texts
relating to the area you are writing about.
Therefore, quotations require complete, correct and consistent citations and are thus
important in academic and other forms of writing.

Writing of citations and referencing in during reviewing of related
literature in research
 Important, you may reference a wide variety of resources in your assignment,
including books, e-journal articles, checklists and websites.
 There are many styles that can be used for referencing. When you are given
coursework or dissertation guidelines, check which style of referencing your
lecturer or departmentasks you to use.
 If you don’t check, and you use a style that is not the one stated in your
guidelines, you could find you lose marks.

Writing of citations and referencing in during reviewing of related literature
in research
What Is A Citation?
When you use another person’s work in your own work, either by referring to
their ideas, or by including a direct quotation, you must acknowledge this in the
text of your work. This acknowledgement is called a citation.
What Is Referencing?
It is a method used to demonstrate to your readers that you have conducted a
thorough and appropriate literature search, and reading.
Likewise, referencing is an act of acknowledging that you have used the ideas
and written material belonging to other authors in your own work.

 Why cite?
1- Proper citation is a key element in academic scholarship and intellectual
exchange. When we cite we:
2- Show respect for the work of others
3- Help a reader to distinguish our work from the work of others who
have contributed to our work
4- give the reader the opportunity to check the validity of our use of other
peoples work.
5-Give the reader the opportunity to follow up our references, out of interest.
6- Show and receive proper credit for our research process
7- Demonstrate that we are able to use reliable sources and critically assess them
to support our work
8- Establish the credibility and authority of our knowledge and ideas
9- Demonstrate that we are able to draw our own conclusions
10- Share the blame (if we get it wrong).

When to cite
When we acknowledge the use of materials or ideas that are not ours, the reader
must be able to clearly distinguish between our own words, illustrations, findings and
ideas and the words and work of other creators.
In written work, we should cite in the text where we have used an external source.
The inclusion of a reference in a bibliography (works cited/list of references) at the end
of the paper is not enough.
Style guides give us advice for documenting our sources in written work, but they are
less helpful with other formats and mediums.
Nevertheless, we can be honest and we can be helpful to our audience(s) for
assessment purposes, this is an expectation.

How to cite
When we cite, we should make clear what it is that we are citing.
It must be clear to the reader just what it is that we owe to someone else, and
whether we have quoted exactly or have used our own words and understanding of the
original material.
The reader must be able to distinguish clearly between our words/work and the
words/work of others.
1- Quotations are the exact words as used by others are indicated either
by quotation marks or by displaying (indenting) the quotation.
2- Paraphrase and summary of other peoples’ works. Work should similarly
be distinguishable from our own words and ideas.

Writing of citations and referencing in during reviewing of related literature
in research
 The citation in the text links to a full reference that will enable the reader to trace
the exact material used.
 The three main types of in-text citation are:
1. Author : In-text citation is done by an introductory and/or parenthetical
citation providing. The last name of the author, and page
number(s) from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken,
if applicable.
2. Author date : In-text citation is done by an introductory and/or parenthetical
citation providing. The last name of the author, and the year
of publication from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken,
and the page number, if applicable.

3. Numbered footnote: In-text citation is done by: superscript note numbers
that come after the referenced passage, and after the final punctuation
mark, if used, and corresponding footnotes placed at the bottom of their
page of reference containing all reference details from which the
quotation or paraphrase is taken; when using a source for a second or
subsequent time, a shorter footnote reference is sufficient.

 The terms reference list and bibliography are usually used interchangeably,
although strictly speaking, a bibliography refers to all the reading you have
undertaken for your assignment, not just the work you have referred to in your
writing.
 The terms reference and citation are also often used to refer to the same thing
although a citation tends to mean the part of the text within your assignment
where you acknowledge the source; whilst a reference usually refers to the full
bibliographic information at the end.

The basics about citations and referencing
When you quote from, or refer to, another source of information in your
assignment, you must provide a citation to it, which then leads to a
reference giving the full details of the resource.
You will end up with:
1-a citation within the text
2- a reference in the bibliography or reference list at or near the
end of the assignment.

Various formats used in citations and referencing
There are different modes of writing citations and references i.e. the Harvard
system (sometimes referred to as the Author-Date system), APA (the American
Psychological Association) referencing style, the Vancouver Citation Style, the MLA
(the Modern Language Association) style and Chicago style is known as Turabian
style.
We are going to study each independently and understand how when each is
applied.
Writing of citations and referencing in during
reviewing of related literature in research
 You should note, these are global standards of writing citations and references
and each academic organisations and publication firms adopt one of these.
 You need to understand them and know how they are applied.
 As a student and a prospective researcher, who has intentions to further your
interests in research and publication, it is important that you understand the
basics.
The Harvard system
Referencing in the Harvard style is a two–part process that is;
1- Citation in the text: this is the brief indication of the source within the
text of your work immediately following the use of the source whether
quoted or summarised.
2-Reference list: a complete list of all the cited references used in your work
with full bibliographic details, to allow the reader to follow up these references
and find the original text.

Citation in the text
The literal adaptation of a book to film is practically impossible. As Stam (2005a, p.
4)- (Always provide author, year and page number(s) when quoting.)
Citing one author
-A recent study investigated the effectiveness of using Google Scholar to
find medical research (Henderson, 2005).
or
- Henderson (2005) has investigated the effectiveness of Google Scholar
in finding medical research.

Citing two or three authors
If the work has two or three authors, include all names in your citation
Recent research indicates that the number of duplicate papers being published is
increasing (Arrami & Garner, 2008).
Evidence shows that providing virtual laboratory exercises as well as practical
laboratory experience enhances the learning process (Barros, Read & Verdejo,
2008).
Citing four or more authors
If the work has four or more authors/editors the abbreviation ‘et al’ should be
used after the first author’s name. It is also acceptable to use ‘et al’ after the first
author if the work has three authors.
Social acceptance of carbon capture and storage is necessary for the introduction
of technologies (van Alphen et al, 2007).
Citing works by the same author written in the same year
Citing works by the same author written in the same year
If you cite a new work which has the same author and was written in the same
year as an earlier citation, you must use a lower case letter after the date to
differentiate between the works.
 Communication of science in the media has increasingly come under focus,
particularly where reporting of facts and research is inaccurate (Goldacre,
2008a; Goldacre, 2008b).
 Citing from chapters written by different authors
 Some books may contain chapters written by different authors. When citing
work from such a book, the author who wrote the chapter should be cited, not
the editor of the book.

 Referencing in Harvard
 Ashurst, S 2009, ‘Why Alan Moore hates comic-book movies’, Total Film, 2
February, viewed 5 December
2010,http://www.totalfilm.com/features/exclusive-why-alan-moorehates-comic-
book-movies. (Online newspaper or magazine article )
 Desmond, J & Hawkes, P 2006, Adaptation: studying film and literature,

McGraw-Hill, Boston.(Book with two authors).
 Hutcheon, L 2006, A theory of adaptation, Routledge, New York. (For Book)
 Leitch, T 2008, ‘Adaptation studies at a crossroads’, Adaptation, vol. 1, no. 1,

pp. 63–77. for Journal article
APA Referencing style
What is APA?
APA is the American Psychological Association.
In text citations
The in text citations in this format is not so different from the Harvard apart from a
few features.
The example for the APA in text citation;
Water is a necessary part of every person’s diet and of all the nutrients a body needs
to function, it requires more water each day than any other nutrient (Whitney & Rolfes,
2011).
 Whitney and Rolfes (2011) state the body requires many nutrients to function
but highlight that water is of greater importance than any other nutrient. or
 Water is an essential element of anyone’s diet and Whitney and Rolfes (2011)
emphasise it is more important than any other nutrient.
 Many inexperienced writers are unsure about "the actual boundaries of the
grammatical abstraction called a sentence" (Shaughnessy, 1977, p. 24).

One author:
Castle, E. B. (1970). The teacher. London: Oxford University Press.
Medley, D. M. (1983). Teacher effectiveness. In H. E. Mitzel (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of educational research (Vol. 4, pp. 1894-1903). New York: The Free Press.
Two authors:
McCandless, B. R., & Evans, E. D. (1973). Children and youth: Psychosocial
development. Hinsdale, IL: Dryden Press.

The Chicago Style
The Chicago citation style is used widely for academic writing in the humanities,
social sciences and natural sciences.
There are two formats of referencing within the Chicago style. One is notes
bibliography and the other author-date.
Notes-Bibliography (used in the humanities) and the Author-Date style (used in
the social, physical, and natural sciences).
Proper citation acknowledges the creators of each source and helps your readers
find the original source if they would like more information.

 The humanities style presents detailed bibliographic information in a note–
sometimes a footnote on the page where a source is used, and sometimes as
an endnote on the final page of the paper.
 Citation information is often repeated in a bibliography at the end of a paper,
too, but always confirm with your instructor whether s/he prefers endnotes or
footnotes and if the Bibliography is needed.
 The Author-Date style briefly cites sources used in the text, usually in
parentheses, by author’s last name and date of publication.
 These short citations are detailed on the References page at the end of the
paper, where full citation information for sources is provided.

Referencing Sources Within The Text
Throughout the text, you must acknowledge the sources used in your writing.
 Whenever you present a statement of evidence such as a quote, or when you use
someone else's ideas, opinions or theories in your own words (paraphrasing), you must
acknowledge your sources.
The Chicago notes-bibliography style is a numbered system whereby authorship is
acknowledged using a number to represent the reference.
The reader can follow this in-text number to the corresponding number in the
footnote or endnote.
Citation numbers should be inserted in superscript to the right of commas and full
stops, and to the left of colons and semi-colons.

Some examples of how to cite sources within the text
When you summarise the general idea of a source in your own words, you must
cite the author or body responsible for the work.
Every time you wish to cite a source, place the number at the end of the
sentence or end of the clause e.g.
The experiment “failed to confirm this hypothesis”.
Footnote
Sylwester, Adolescent Brain, 89.
Anderson and Poole, Assignment and Thesis Writing, 65.

Example of a bibliography:
Anderson, Jonathan, and Millicent E. Poole. Assignment and Thesis Writing. 4th ed.
Milton, Qld.: John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
Jackson, Debra, Angela Firtko, and Michael Edenborough. “Personal Resilience as a
Strategy for Surviving and Thriving in the Face of Workplace Adversity: A Literature
Review.”
Journal of Advanced Nursing 60, no. 1 (2007): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1086/525508.
Knowles, Malcolm S. “Independent Study.” In Using Learning Contracts, 73-122. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986.
Sylwester, Robert. The Adolescent Brain: Reaching for Autonomy. Heatherton,
Victoria: Hawker Brownlow Education, 2008.

ML A Ci t a t i o n S t y l e
Abbreviated as-MLA, in full it means the Modern Language Association.
The MLA style is one of a number of styles of referencing or bibliographic citation
that is used widely for academic writing, particularly in the humanities.
MLA citation style uses a simple two-part documentation system for citing
sources.
MLA uses an author-page system of in-text citation, e.g. (Mullan 24), and a
Works Cited list at the end of the document.

 Citations in the text of a paper point to the alphabetical Works Cited list that
appears at the end e.g. of the paper.
 Together, these references identify and credit the sources used in the paper
and allow others to access and retrieve this material.
 In MLA style, writers place references to sources to identify them and enable
the readers to find them in the Works Cited list.

In-text Citation: Referencing Sources Within The Text
Throughout the text of your paper you need to acknowledge the sources you
used to write your paper.
Whenever you present a statement of evidence such as a quote, or when you
use someone else's ideas, opinions or theories in your own words (paraphrasing),
you must acknowledge your sources.
Some examples of how to cite sources within your paper are given here.
 If you use the name of the author(s) in your writing, place the page numbers of
the work in parentheses where there is a natural pause in the text e.g., at the end
of a sentence.
Examples of in-text citations and referencing;
a)- Mullan described narration as…(40).
b)- Mullan explained that at times “tone is all” (213) and should be “anti-
solemn” (215).
c)…and a number of studies have shown identical results (Sanders 118;

Smith 11-14).
References or Works Cited
a)- Andreasen, Nancy C. Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Era of
the Genome. Oxford UP, 2001.
b)- Berkovic, Nicola. “Handouts May Not Be Sent: Tax Office Seeks Quick
Resolution of High Court Challenge.” The Australian, 31 Mar. 2009, p. 5.
c) Ferres, Kay. “Idiot Box: Television, Urban Myths and Ethical Scenarios.”
Australian Cinema in the 1990s, edited by Ian Craven., Frank Cass, 2001, pp. 175-
88.
The research Population and sampling
Introduction
This section focuses on the study of population and sampling which are critical in
research studies.
We are able to discuss what the meaning of population and sample size.
Any study that is proposed to be executed has to have a population where data
will be derived from. This is very important for every study.
Sample size is another important element in research because not all the
population is studied.
Each student is required to put in an extra effort to learn more about population
and sampling in research.

Research Population
In many research studies and publications, you will find the research population
referred to target population.
Researchers necessarily study samples, but always wish to make conclusions to a

wider population of cases.
Thus, empirical analyses intend to establish results that can be generalized to a

larger set beyond the sample studied.
What is Population?
A research population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that

is the main focus of a scientific query.
A research population is also known as a well-defined collection of individuals or

objects known to have similar characteristics.
 Population has a slightly different meaning from the one given expressed in ordinary
speech.
 A researcher need not to refer only to people or to animate creatures.
 A population is thus an aggregate of different creatures, things, cases and so on.
 For example, statisticians speak of a population of objects, or events, or procedures,
or observations, including such things as the quantity of lead in urine.
 Population is the broader group of people to whom you intend to generalize the
results of your study.
 For instance, say your research question asks if there is an association between
emotional intelligence and job satisfaction in nurses in Uganda.
 In this case, your population might be nurses in the Uganda.

 In case the scope of your study is more narrow for example, if your study deals with a local
problem or a specific specialty, then your population would be more specific, such as “nurses in
the state of Kabarole district which one of the district in Uganda.
Important to note
 Your population should only include people to whom your results will apply.
 For example, if you do not have good reason to believe that your results will apply to all nurses
in the Uganda, then your population will need to be more specific.
 In research, a population is an entire group about which some information is required to be
ascertained.
 A statistical population need not consist only of people.
 We can have population of heights, weights, events, so long as the population is well defined
with explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria.

 In selecting a population for study, the research question or purpose of the
study will suggest a suitable definition of the population to be studied, in terms
of location and restriction to a particular age group, sex or occupation.
 The population must be fully defined so that those to be included and excluded
are clearly spelt out (inclusion and exclusion criteria).
 Polit and Hungler (1999:37) refer to the population as an aggregate or totality
of all the objects, subjects or members that conform to a set of specifications.

General, Target, and Accessible Population
Population in research is classified in three categories for instance general, target

and accessible populations.
General
Population
Target
Population
Accessible
Population
The General Population
General population is probably what is universally known and specified by

researchers.
It is the largest group of potential participants an entire group where information
is required to be ascertained.
Participants in the general population must share at least a single attribute of

interest.
It is this attribute that makes participants eligible as population members.
People in this population share at least one basic characteristic, they belong to a
certain category e.g. health workers.
 Education, tenure and gender can be other attributes shared by population

members, but being a health worker in a healthcare institution is the most
primary common characteristic.
Target Population
The target population is the group a researcher hopes to understand.
The entire group of people about which information required is from the target
population.
Your target population might, for example, be a small group of 10 to 12 people
who meet regularly at the local coffee shop.
On the other hand, your target population may be the 50,000 people who drink a
particular brand of coffee each morning in a defined geographical region.

 Accessible Population
 The accessible population is the population in research to which the
researchers can apply their conclusions.
 This population is a subset of the target population and is also known as the
study population.
 It is from the accessible population that researchers draw their sample.
 The accessible population is who the researcher can actually study.
 Resource restrictions such as budget constraints, geographical location and time
contribute to the need for a limited research population.
 When it is not practical to recruit every human being in the target market, it is
necessary to employ an accessible population as a subset of the target group.

Population Samples
Three things are involved in the study of population samples that is to say,
sample, sampling and sample frame.
Meaning of a sample
Sample refers to the selected elements (people or objects) chosen for

participation in a study; people are referred to as subjects or participants.
Meaning of Sampling
The process of selecting a group of people, events, behaviors, or other elements

with which to conduct a study.
Meaning of Sampling frame
A list of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn
Sample
A sample can be defined as a group of relatively smaller number of people and none
human items or things selected from a population for investigation purpose.
For humans, the members of the sample are called as participants.
Sampling
The process through which a sample is extracted from a population is called as
sampling.
In investigation it is impossible to assess every single element of a population so a
group of people (smaller in number than the population) is selected for the assessment.
 On the basis of information obtained from the sample, the inferences are
drawn for the population.
 The more the sample is representative of the population, the higher is the
accuracy of the interpretations and better are the results generalisable.
 A sample is said to be representative when the characteristics of elements

selected are similar to that of entire target population.
 The results are said to be generalisable when the findings obtained from
sample are equally true for the entire target population.
 Sampling process may encounter the problem of systematic errors and

sampling biases.
 Systematic errors can be defined as incorrect or false representation of the

sample.
Sampling justification
Sampling helps becauseit is more economical to choose a sample instead of

studying the entire population.
In many cases a complete coverage of the population is not necessary, therefore
it is necessary to have a selected number is possible and manageable.
Complete coverage may not offer substantial advantage over a sample survey.
Therefore, sampling provides a better option since it addresses the population in a
short period of time and produces comparable and equally valid results.
Sampling is assumed to be more economical, since it involves fewer people and

fewer experts.
Samples are thought to offer more detailed information and a high degree of
accuracy because they deal with relatively small numbers of units.
Principles of sampling
Sampling to effective must be conducted by considering the following principles;
Sample units must be chosen in a systematic and objective manner
Samples units must be easily identifiable and clearly defined.
Sample units must be independent of each other, uniform and of the same size
and should appear one in the population.
The selection process should be based on sound criteria and should avoid errors,
bias and distortion.

Types of Sampling
Sampling procedures vary significantly. Samples may be made through selelf selection
i.e. respondents decide to take part in the study or through the researcher.
Probability sampling
This is sampling is a procedure in which the choice of respondents guided by the
probability principles i.e. each unit of the target population has equal,calculabe and
non-zero probability of being included in the sample.
Probability sampling is also called as random sampling or representative sampling.
In probability sampling every member of the population has a known (non zero)
probability of being included in the sample.

How is probability sampling done?
The probabilities can be assigned to each unit of the population objectively.
These techniques need population to be very precisely defined.
These techniques cannot be used for the population that is too general a
category found almost everywhere in the world.
For instance if our target population is defined as college students. It means
person studying at any college of the world is an element of our population.
In this case how a sample can be extracted through probability sampling
technique.
Advantages:
This sampling technique reduces the chance of systematic errors.
The methods minimize the chance of sampling biases.
 A better representative sample is produced using probability sampling techniques.
Interpretations drawn from the sample are generalisable to the population.
Disadvantages:
The techniques need a lot of efforts
A lot of time is consumed.
They are expensive.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Non-probability sampling is also called judgment or non-random sampling.
Every unit of population does not get an equal chance of participation in the
investigation.
No random selection is made
The selection of the sample is made on the basis of subjective judgment of the
investigator.
These techniques need not population to be very precisely defined.
 These techniques can be used for both types of population: the population that is too
general a category, and the population that is a specific category precisely defined.
 For instance if our target population is defined as college students. It means
person studying at any college of the world is an element of our population. It
is too general a category consisting of infinite number of elements.
 Contrastingly, if the target population is defined as students of 2015-16 badge
of Mpanga Senior Secondary School. It means only those students constitute
our population who study in that secondary school during the mentioned
period. It is a specific type consisting of finite number of elements

Advantages:
The techniques need less effort.
These techniques need less time to finish up.
They are not much costly.
Disadvantages:
 The sampling techniques are prone to encounter with systematic errors and
sampling biases.
 The sample cannot be claimed to be a good representative of the population.
 Interpretations drawn from sample are not generalisable to the population.

Types of Probability Sampling Methods
Following methods are used for probability sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling
Simple Random Sampling:
In this type of sampling each and every element of the population has an equal
chance of being selected in the sample.
 The population must contain a finite number of elements that can be listed or
mapped.
 Every element must be mutually exclusive i.e. able to distinguish from one
another and does not have any overlapping characteristics.
 The population must be homogenous i.e. every element contains same kind of
characteristics that meets the described criteria of target population.

Method:
 Before taking a sample the population is needed to be defined. In other words, one must
know what characteristics constitute the population of interest.
 A list of all the elements of population is required.
 One needs to prepare the list if the readymade is not available.
 The list must be exhaustive i.e. it must contain the name of each and every element of the
population.
 One method for the selection of participants is lottery method: each element is first given a
number and then numbers are individually written on slips of paper.

 The slips are put and mixed thoroughly in some bag or bowl. Then the decided
number of slips is drawn out of it.
 Other methods may be the use of any random table generated through
computeror any other resource.
 The selected participants are approached and investigation is done.

There are benefits that are derived from this method of sampling:
 There is not the possibility of sampling biases.
The sample is a good representative of the population.
What are the draw backs?
It may be very costly and time consuming especially in those cases when the
participants are widely spread geographically and difficult to approach.
 It needs a lot of efforts especially for a large population.
 In many circumstances it is not possible to get or prepare an exhaustive list of
elements. Even apparently complete lists may also exclude some of the potential
elements. For instance, we randomly select the population of a town using telephone
list. Is it sure that everybody in the town has a connection

Systematic Random Sampling
This type of sampling is also used for homogenous population.
It is a bit different from simple random sampling.
Unlike simple random sampling, there is not an equal probability of every element
been included.
 In this type of sampling the elements are selected at a regular interval.
 The interval may be in terms of time, space or order. For instance, element
appearing after every 30 minutes, or present at a distance of two meters, or every 5th
element present on a list.
Thus this regularity and uniformity in selection makes the sampling systematic.
 The list of elements may or may not be required before the conduction of research.
 Sometimes it is not even possible to create a list because of the nature of population.
Say, if it is possible to tell who is going to visit the coffee shop today.
The Methods followed to obtain the sample:
Before taking a sample the population is needed to be defined. In other words,
one must know what characteristics constitute the population of interest.
In case where exhaustive list of elements of the target population is available,
the list is arranged and numbered in an order 1 to N.
To find an appropriate interval suppose population contains N number of
elements and we need a sample of n size.
Divide N by n. the number obtained through this division, say k, is an appropriate
interval size to produce a representative sample.

 For instance if population is consisted of 300 elements and we need a sample of 30
participants, then interval size will be 10 so we need to select every tenth element.
 Then first element, say 5th, is selected at random then every 10th is selected.
 In this way the sample will be composed of 5th, 15th, 25th 35th and so on
 elements.
 Selected numbered elements are then approached and the investigation is done.
 In case where the list is not possible to make an interval size is decided and then
participants appearing with that interval are approached.

Benefits:
 It ensures the extension of sample to the whole population
It provides the way to get a random and representative sample in the situation
where prior listing up of elements is not possible.
Some draw backs:
 It may be very costly and time consuming especially in those cases when the
participants are widely spread geographically and difficult to approach
It needs a lot of efforts especially for a large population.

 If the order of the list is biased in some way, systematic error may occur. For
instance, you are going to select every 15th element from a list compiled of
groups of fifteen members where the first name in each group is that of the
Prime Minister.
Stratified Random Sampling
 This type of sampling method is used when population is heterogeneous. i.e.
every
 element of population does not matches all the characteristics of the predefined
criteria.
 Instead the elements differ from one another on a characteristic.

 So the sub groups are formed that are homogenous i.e. all the elements within
a group contains same kind of characteristics (keep in mind, those
characteristics are to be taken into account that defines the target population).
 The sub groups are called as strata (single stratum)
 The topic and nature of the investigation tells on what criterion the strata are
to be made.
Method of reaching selecting the sample
Before taking a sample the population is needed to be defined. In other words, one
must know what characteristics constitute the population of interest.
On the basis of nature and purpose of investigation it is decided which criterion has to
be taken into account to make the sub groups (strata)
 Then on the basis of decided criterion stratification is done
A list of all the elements of each strata is required.
One needs to prepare the list if the readymade is not available.
The list must be exhaustive.
The participants are then selected from each stratum through lottery method or using
any random table (as in simple random sampling)

 Or in case if it is not possible to prepare the list because of the nature of
population every nth element is selected from each stratum (as in systematic
random sampling)
 The list must be exhaustive.
 The participants are then selected from each stratum through lottery method or
using any random table (as in simple random sampling)
 Or in case if it is not possible to prepare the list because of the nature of
population every nth element is selected from each stratum (as in systematic
random sampling)
Benefits:
 For a heterogeneous population it produces a representative sample as it
captures the diversity which otherwise is likely to be undermined through simple
random or systematic random sampling.
Crucial Issues/ Draw Backs
It needs a lot of efforts.
It is costly and time consuming
If the criterion characteristic/ variable used for classification is not selected
correctly, the whole research may go in vain.

Cluster Sampling
The group of elements residing in one geographical region is called as cluster.
 And sampling of clusters is called as cluster sampling.
 This sampling technique is used when the elements of population are spread over a
wide geographical area.
 The population is divided into sub-groups called as clusters on the basis of their
geographical allocation.
Method
 First of all the population is divided into clusters.
 The clusters are selected randomly using simple random or systematic random
sampling techniques.
The selected clusters are visited.
 All the elements (may be individuals, households, schools, markets etc.
depending on the nature of investigation) within the selected clusters are
investigated.
Advantage:
In cases where the population is spread over a wide geographical region, cluster
sampling is used to reduce cost as compare to simple random or systematic
random sampling.
It consumes less time and efforts than the aforementioned techniques.
For instance the list of elements of the population is not required.
Moreover, instead of going place to place over a widely spread area for randomly
selecting elements, you get a group of elements in one geographical region.

Some draw backs:
It may sometimes lead to sampling biases and systematic errors.
For instance, in the selection of markets only big markets may be selected,
though randomly. So this selection is likely to impact the results. The results may
be different if there were small markets in the selection too.

Multistage Sampling
 It is a sampling technique where two or more probability techniques are
combined.
 It is used when the elements of population are spread over a wide geographical
region
and it is not possible to obtain a representative sample with only one
aforementioned technique.
It can be described as sampling within the sample.

 The formation of these strata can be done using cluster sampling technique or
stratified random sampling technique depending on the nature of investigation.
 In each stratum the units may need to be further divided, for instance market
places into shops, buildings into houses etc. The final units obtained are
investigated.
Procedures that are followed
 Usually at the first stage target population is divided into clusters.
 The clusters are selected randomly.
 These clusters are called as first stage units or primary units
These clusters are homogenous among them but may be heterogeneous inside.
To overcome this heterogeneity, homogenous sub groups called as strata are
formed.
So the strata are called the second stage units or sub-units.
Advantages:
It increases cost and time efficacy.
For instance instead of investigating all the elements within a cluster, if a sample is
randomly drawn from each cluster, the results will be similar but with lesser
efforts. This particular sampling method where random sampling is done within the
selected clusters is called as two stage sampling.
The technique is also useful in overcoming the heterogeneity problem within the
clusters.
Crucial Issues/ Draw Backs:

If the selected clusters do not capture the characteristic diversity of population, the
sample would not be representative of the population.
If the characteristic variable used for making strata (in case of heterogeneity) at any
stage is not appropriately selected depending on the nature of investigation,the whole
research may go in vain.
 Types of Non-probability Sampling Techniques
 Following methods of sampling are included in the non probability sampling:
1. Volunteer sampling
2. Convenient sampling
3. Purposive sampling
4. Quota sampling (proportional and non proportional)
5. Snowball sampling
Volunteer Sampling
 The members of the sample self-select themselves for being the part of the
study.
 In other words it is not the investigator who approaches the participants rather
participants themselves reach the investigator.
Method:
Participants are told about the investigation through advertisements and
announcements.
Whosoever is interested contacts the investigator.

Crucial draw backs:
This type of sampling often encounters the problem of generalization.
This technique encounter with systematic errors.
The people who take part in are those who have an interest in the topic and thus
they cannot be a representative of the people who are indifferent to it.
Advantage:
It is inexpensive.
 It is less time consuming
It helps in gathering a big amount of data in very limited time with small efforts.
The researcher does not need to put any efforts for search of participants.
Convenient Sampling
It is also called as accidental sampling or opportunity sampling.
 The researcher includes those participants who are easy or convenient to

approach.
 The technique is useful where target population is defined in terms of very

broad category.
For instance the target population may be girls and boys, men and women, rich
and poor etc.
Method:
 Any member of the target population who is available at the moment is

approached.
 He or she is asked for participation in the research.
 If the person shows consent, the investigation is done.

Crucial draw backs:
It is subjected to sampling biases and systematic errors.
The categories of target population are broader enough to be divisible into
infinite number of categories within themselves which are contrastingly
different from one another and cannot at any cost be representative of each
other.
Advantage:
 It consumes fewer efforts.
 It is inexpensive.
 Purposive Sampling:
 It is not a mutually exclusive category of the sampling technique rather many
other non probability techniques are purposive in nature.
 In purposive sampling the sample is approached having a prior purpose in
mind.
 The criteria of the elements who are to include in the study is predefined.
 So we do not include everyone who is available to us rather those available are
included who meet the defined criteria.

Quota Sampling
 This type of sampling method is used when population is heterogeneous i.e. every
element of population does not matches all the characteristics of the predefined criteria.
 Instead the elements differ from one another on a characteristic.
 So the sub groups are formed that are homogenous i.e. all the elements within a
group contains same kind of characteristics (keep in mind, those characteristics are to
be taken into account that defines the target population).
 The topic and nature of the investigation tells on what criterion quota is to be set.
 Common criterions used for quota are gender, age, ethnicity, socioeconomic etc.
 However, the criterion vary greatly investigation to investigation.
 The participants are selected non-randomly from each sub group on the basis of some fixed
quota.
Method:
 First of all there is a need to identify the variable which makes the target population
heterogeneous.
 On the basis of the identified variable sub groups are made.
 A quota is set for each sub group.
 Then the sample is approached on the basis of set quota
Advantage:
 It ensures the presence of every sub group of the population in the sample.
 There is not the requirement of any lists of the elements of population.
 It is less time consuming and low in cost than stratified random sampling.
Snowball Sampling:
It is also called as chain sampling.
 One element of the population is approached at a time and then is asked to refer the
investigator to the other elements of the population.
Method:
The investigator selects a person who matches the criteria of the research
 The first participant is now asked to refer the investigator to another person who meets the
same criteria.
 Now the second participant approached is asked to refer the researcher to another one. In this
way a chain is made.
Advantage:
This technique is useful in approaching the type of population which is not readily available or
present in a very small quantity.
Crucial draw backs:
 It is subjected to sampling biases and systematic errors due to network connection.

Methods of data collection
Introduction
This session is introduces the issue of data collection as part of research studies.
In any study, an investigator may have a choice of collecting the relevant data himself
or of relying entirely on existing data already collected by someone else.
The former is called the Primary Sources while the latter is called Secondary Sources
of data.
What is data collection?
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.

 Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant

sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and
evaluate the outcomes.
 Data collection methods can be divided into two categories: secondary methods
of data collection and primary methods of data collection.
Secondary Data Collection Methods
 Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books,
newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals etc.
 There is an abundance of data available in these sources about your research

area in business studies, almost regardless of the nature of the research area.
 Therefore, application of appropriate set of criteria to select secondary data to

be used in the study plays an important role in terms of increasing the levels
of research validity and reliability.
 These criteria include, but not limited to date of publication, credential of the
author, reliability of the source, quality of discussions, depth of analyses, the extent
of contribution of the text to the development of the research area etc.
Primary Data Collection Methods
 Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and
qualitative.
 Quantitative Data Collection Methods are based in mathematical calculations in

various formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include
questionnaires with closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and regression,
mean, mode and median and others.
 Quantitative methods are cheaper to apply and they can be applied within shorter
duration of time compared to qualitative methods. Moreover, due to a high level of
standardisation of quantitative methods, it is easy to make comparisons of findings.
Qualitative data collection
Qualitative data collection methods do not involve numbers or mathematical
calculations.
Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feeling, emotions,
colours and other elements that are non-quantifiable.
Qualitative studies aim to ensure greater level of depth of understanding and
qualitative data collection methods include interviews, questionnaires with open-ended
questions, focus groups, observation, game or role-playing, case studies etc.
Your choice between quantitative or qualitative methods of data collection depends on
the area of your research and the nature of research aims and objectives.
 Qualitative data cannot be accurately measured and counted, and are generally
expressed in words rather than numbers.
 The primary data are the first and most immediate recording of a situation.
 Without this kind of recorded data it would be difficult to make sense of
anything but the simplest phenomenon and be able to communicate the facts
to others.
 There are four basic types of primary data, distinguished by the way they are
collected.
1- Measurement – collections of numbers indicating amounts, e.g.
voting polls, exam results, car mileages, oven temperatures etc.
2-Observation – records of events, situations or things experienced with
your own senses and perhaps with the help of an instrument, e.g.
camera, tape recorder, microscope, etc.
3- Interrogation – data gained by asking and probing, e.g.
informationabout people’s convictions, likes and dislikes etc.
4-Participation – data gained by experiences of doing things

 There are different methods of primary data collection which include;
 Asking questions is an obvious method of collecting both quantitative and
qualitative information from people.
 A survey method of data collection uses a questionnaire which is a tool for
gaining quantitative data but can also be used for qualitative data.
 This method of collecting information is commonly called a survey.

Data Collection Instruments
Accurate and systematic data collection is critical to conducting scientific
research.
 Data collection allows us to collect information that we want to collect about our
study objects.
Depending on research type, methods of data collection include: documents
review, observation, questioning, measuring, or a combination of different
methods.
Questionnaire
 A questionnaire is a data collection instrument consistent of a series of questions

and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.
The questionnaire is the main instrument for collecting data in survey research.
 Basically, it is a set of standardized questions, often called items, which follow a

fixed scheme in order to collect individual data about one or more specific topics.
We define a questionnaire as an instrument for collecting data, which almost

always involves asking a given subject to respond to a set of oral or written
questions.
 A questionnaire is enables a researcher to organise the questions and receive replies
without having to talk to every respondent.
 The advantage of the questionnaire is that it is flexible, convenient for respondents
and is quick to administer to a large number of cases and to large geographical
areas.
 There is no personal influence of the researcher and embarrassing questions can be
asked with a fair chance of getting a true reply.
 The challenging part of the questionnaire is, it requires a lot of time and skill to
design and develop.

 Administration of a questionnaire can be through personal delivery, by post and
through the internet.
 Each of these has the advantages;
 The advantages with personal delivery are, respondents can be helped to
overcome difficulties with the questions, respondents can be persuaded and
reminded for the researcher to have a high response rate.
 Postal questionnaires are used when a large number of respondents are in
different locations though the correct address of each respondent is required.

 The response rate is difficult to predict or control if there is no system of
follow-up.
 Internet questionnaires are the cheapest and least time consuming method of
delivery.
 Although it is easy to get a blanket coverage by random delivery, response
rates tend to be very low and it is difficult to know how representative the
sample will be.

 There are basically two question types:
 Closed format questions. The respondent must choose from a set of given
answers.
 These tend to be quick to answer, easy to code and require no special writing
skills from the respondent.
 However, they do limit the range of possible answers.
 Open format questions. The respondent is free to answer in their own
content and style.
 These tend to permit freedom of expression and allow the respondents to
qualify their responses.

Conducting Interviews
An interview is a qualitative method of collecting information through physical
interaction.
Interviews are more suitable for questions that require probing to obtain
adequate information.
The use of interviews to question samples of people is a very flexible tool with a
wide range of applications.
Three types of interview are often mentioned:
Structured interview – Involves standardized questions read out by the
interviewer according to an interview schedule. Answers may be closed format.

 Unstructured interview – a flexible format, usually based on a question guide
but where the format remains the choice of the interviewer, who can allow the
interview to ‘ramble’ in order to get insights into the attitudes of the interviewee.
 Semi-structured interview – Is one that contains structured and unstructured
sections with standardized and open type questions.
 Interviews are particularly useful when qualitative data are required.
 Interviews can be used for subjects, both general or specific in nature and even,
with the correct preparation, for very sensitive topics.
 They can be one-off or repeated several times over a period to track developments.
 The interviewer is in a good position to judge the quality of the responses, to notice
if a question has not been properly understood and to encourage the respondent to
be full in his/her answers.
 Interviews can be conducted using three methods;
 Face-to-face interviews can be carried out in a variety of situations: in the
home, at work, outdoors, on the move (e.g. while travelling) and can be used to
interview people both singly and in groups.
 In order to inspire respondents, visual signs, such as nods, smiles etc., helps to get
good responses.
 Focus groups can be seen as a type of group interview, but one that tends to
concentrate in depth on a particular theme or topic with an element of interaction.

 The group is often made up of people who have particular experience or knowledge
about the subject of the research, or those that have a particular interest in it e.g.
consumers or customers.
 Telephone interviews: They limit the necessity unnecessary of travelling to the
respondents and can therefore be carried out more quickly than face-to-face.
 However, you cannot use visual aids to explain questions, and there are no visual
clues.
 Interviews can be audio recorded in many instances in order to retain a full,
uninterpreted record of what was said.

Observing Without Getting Involved
This is a method of gathering data through observation rather than asking
questions.
The aim is to take a detached view of the phenomena, and be ‘invisible’, either in
fact or in effect.
When studying humans or animals, this detachment assumes an absence of
involvement in the group even if the subjects are aware that the observation is
taking place.
Observation can be used for recording data about events and activities, and the
nature or conditions of objects, such as buildings or artefacts.

 Observation is a basic data collecting activity for many branches of research,
particularly the natural and technical sciences, for example, observing the results of
experiments, the behaviour of models, the appearance of materials, plants and
animals.
 It is also useful in the social sciences where people and their activities are studied.
 Observation can record how people react to questions, and whether they act
differently to what they say or intend.
 They can sometimes demonstrate their understanding of a process better by their
actions than by verbally explaining their knowledge.
 Observation can be used to record both quantitative and qualitative data.

Immersing Oneself In a Situation
This is a process of gathering primary data that not only involves observation,
but also experience in every sense of the word.
It is based on the techniques devised by anthropologists to study social life and
cultural practices of communities by immersing themselves in the day-to-day life of
their subjects.
The observations must be carried out in the natural setting.
The researcher tries to ‘fit in’ as much as possible so as to see and understand
the situation from the viewpoints of the group being studied.

 At its most extreme, the subjects of the study will not be aware that they are
being observed.
 Covert methods are used to disguise the role of the observer.
Doing Experiments
 Data can be collected about processes by devising experiments.
 An experiment aims to isolate a particular event so that it can be investigated
without disturbance from its surroundings.
 They are primarily aimed at gaining data about causes and effects – to find out
what happens if you make a change, why and when it happens and how.
 Experiments are used in many different subject areas, whether these are
mainly to do with how things (objects, substances, systems,etc.) interact with
each other, or how people interact with things, and even how people interact
with other people.
 Although experiments are commonly associated with work in laboratories
where it is easiest to impose control, they can be carried out in almost any
other location.
 The design of experiments and models depends very much on the type of
event investigated, the sort of variables involved, and the level of accuracy and
reliability aimed at practical issues such as time and resources available.

Data Processing
What is involved in the processing of information (data)?
Once the fieldwork has been completed, the information that has been gathered
must be centralized and arranged a logical form.
There are different methods of processing information before analyzing it. These
are as follows;
Editing: Editing is a quality-control process and Its purpose is to ensure that

the information on a questionnaire or interview diary is ready to be transferred to
the processer(e.g. computer) for analysis.
 Editing is carried out both during and after the process of data collection, and
much of it occurs simultaneously with coding.
In interview studies, the editing process begins in the field.
Interviewers should check over their completed forms for errors and omissions
soon after each interview is conducted.
Data Processing
 Entering the Data
Data analysis
Introduction
This session deals with data analysis the activity that follows after
completing data processing.
We shall discuss the two types of data analysis which are: qualitative
and quantitative.
 what is data analysis?
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical
and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap,
and evaluate data.
The process of evaluating data using analytical and logical reasoning to
examine each component of the data provided.

Data analysis
 Data from various sources is gathered, reviewed, and then analyzed to form some
sort of finding or conclusion.
 There are a variety of specific data analysis method, some of which include data
mining, text analytics, business intelligence, and data visualizations.
 Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming,
and demonstrating data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing
conclusions, and supporting decision-making.
 Marshall and Rossman(1999:150) describe data analysis as the process of bringing
order, structure and meaning to the mass of collected data.
 it is the activity of making sense of, interpreting and theorizing data that signifies a
search for general statements among categories of data (Schwandt, 2007:6).

Data analysis
 Qualitative Analysis Of Texts, Documents And Discourse
 Qualitative analysis has methods and their characteristics. They are discussed in this
section.
Interrogative Insertion
 This method consists of planning and inserting implied questions into a text for
which the text provides the answers.
 In this way, you can reveal the logic of the discourse and the direction and
emphasis of the argument as made by the author.
 This helps to uncover the recipient design of the text – how the text is written to
appeal to a particular audience and how it tries to communicate a particular
message.
Data analysis
Problem–solution Discourse
This is a further development of interrogative insertion which investigates the implications of
statements more closely.
Most statements can be read to have one of two implications.
The analysis aims to uncover the sequence of the argument by following through first the
situation, then the problem,followed by the response and the result and evaluation.
The absence of any of these steps in the sequence will lead to a sense of incompleteness and
lack of logical argument.
Another way of presenting the analysis is to devise a network in the form of a decision tree that
traces the problems and the possible solutions with their implications.
Data analysis
 Analysis tree
Data analysis
 Membership Categorization
 This technique analyses the way people, both writers and readers, perceive
commonly held views on social organization, how people are expected to
behave, how they relate to each other and what they do in different social
situations.
 Most of these assumptions are not made explicit in the text.
Rhetorical Analysis
 Rhetoric is the use of language and argument to persuade the listener or
reader to believe the author.
 Rhetorical analysis uncovers the techniques used in this kind of communication.

Data analysis
 Rhetoric is used to aim at a particular audience or readership.
Narrative Analysis
 This form of analysis is aimed at extracting themes, structures, interactions and
performances from stories or accounts that people use to explain their past,
their present situation or their interpretations of events.
 The data, which is primarily aural, is collected by semi- or unstructured
interviews, participant observation or other undirected methods.
 The narrative is analysed for different aspects, such as what is said rather than
how, or conversely, the nature of the performance during the telling, and
perhaps how the storyteller reacted with the listener(s).

Data analysis
 All this is done in order to reveal the undercurrents that may lie under the
simple narrative of the story.
Discourse Analysis
 Discourse analysis studies the way that people communicate with each other
through language within a social setting.
 Language is not a neutral medium for transmitting information; it is bedded in
our social situation and helps to create and recreate it.
 Language shapes our perception of the world, our attitudes and identities.
 Two central themes can be identified: the interpretive context in which the
discourse is set, and the verbal organization of the discourse.

Data analysis
Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative analysis deals with data in the form of numbers and uses
mathematical operations to investigate their properties.
The levels of measurement used in the collection of the data i.e. nominal,
ordinal, interval and ratio, are an important factor in choosing the type of analysis
that is applicable, as is the number of cases involved.
Statistics is the name given to this type of analysis.

Data analysis
 Some of the primary purposes of quantitative analysis are to:
1- measure
2- make comparisons
3- examine relationships
4- make forecasts
5- test hypotheses
6- construct concepts and theories
7- explore
8- control
9- explain
Data analysis
 In quantitative data analysis , a researcher has the following tasks to fulfill;
a)-Preparing data the researcher is going to analyse and he/she starts by

checking, editing and coding it so that it is clear, relevant and
appropriate.
b)-Data entry which involves entering the data in the computer. Data
entry contains the variables corresponding to each question and the
corresponding response options.
c)-Presentation of data which can be done in graphical arrangement or

tables.
d)-Data processing and analysis; it can be done through statistical

processing of information which includes methods that allow a
detailed analysis of the data. One method will offer a general
description of data that is descriptive analysis and another focuses on
providing a relationship between variables, looking for
associations or correlations and this is called relational analysis.
Data analysis
e)-Interpretation of the findings: that is explaining the meaning of the data
individually.
f)-Conclusion a stage of proposing direct answers to the research question.
In quantitative data analysis you are expected to turn raw numbers into
meaningful data through the application of rational and critical thinking.
Quantitative data analysis may include the calculation of frequencies of variables

and differences between variables.
A quantitative approach is usually associated with finding evidence to either

support or reject hypotheses you have formulated at the earlier stages of
your research process.
The same figure within data set can be interpreted in many different ways;
therefore it is important to apply fair and careful judgement.
Data analysis
 Quantitative analysis involves the techniques by which researchers convert data
to numerical forms and subject them to statistical analyses.
 Involves the techniques of converting data into knowledge.
 Quantification Of Data: The numerical representation and manipulation of
observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that
those observation reflect.
 Quantitative data can be analyzed in several ways. This module describes some
of the most commonly used quantitative analysis procedures.

Data analysis
 The first step in quantitative data analysis is to identify the levels or scales of
measurement as minimal, ordinal, interval or ratio.
 This is an important first step because it will help you determine how best to
organize the data.
 The data can typically be entered into a database and organized or “coded” in some
way that begins to give meaning to the data.
 The next step would be to use descriptive statistics to summarize or “describe” the
data. It can be difficult to identify patterns or visualize what the data is showing if
you are just looking at raw data.

Data analysis
 Following is a list of commonly used descriptive statistics:
1-Frequencies – a count of the number of times a particular score or

value is found in the data set.
2-Percentages – used to express a set of scores or values as a percentage

of the whole.
3-Mean – numerical average of the scores or values for a particular

variable.
4- Median – the numerical midpoint of the scores or values that is at the

center of the distribution of the scores.
5-Mode – the most common score or value for a particular variable
Minimum and maximum values (range) – the highest and lowest values or
scores for any variable.

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Research Methods Two

Musobozi Paul Stephen

2) Doing the research project

3) Population and sampling

4) Data collection methods

5) Questionnaires and interviews

9) Data processing and analysis

10) Publication of findings/ reporting results of research

What is the nature of research at the university?

Research at university mainly focuses on generation of knew knowledge.

At some levels for example undergraduate, knowledge in research is theory-

 Research conducted at university may not be in response to current social

 The research conducted in a university setting has traditionally been seen as

 What are the values of academic research?

 Is it still important for university scholars to endeavor to conduct academic

Values Academic Research?

 Academic research is required in order to obtain novel information or to create

 Researchers in the university have a strong interest in pursuing unusual ideas

 Academic research aims at making educational impact when new knowledge is

 Researchers have the responsibility to disseminate new knowledge to the

community, including scholars, students and the general public.

 Often times, researchers at university publish their research findings in top-tier

 They also share their research findings at conferences and in seminars so as to

inspire scholars in their own discipline e.g MMU.

 The publication and presentation of academic research therefore facilitates however

more research, which subsequently results in an advancement of the field.

 This is what motivates researchers at university the most.

the knowledge they have gained to students during lectures.

discoveries private, those in academic institutions are encouraged to publicize

the outcome of their research.

 Their research findings are made freely available to everybody.

 Essentially, it is important that researchers are willing to share their data

among the community for further investigation. 07/27/2020 8

Certain habits can be found in the majority of academic researchers in a traditional

In addition to creativity, attitude is central to the spirit of academics.

 To an academic, research is their way of life rather than simply a job.

 There is no distinction between being on campus or off. 07/27/2020 10

types of research projects.

posed by the research aims.

explanation of the characteristics of each.

Descriptive Correlation Comparative

Simulation Evaluation Action Ethnographical

It is a systematic and objective evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to

establish facts and draw conclusions about past events.

archaeological remains as well as documentary sources of the past.

the past and to inform the present and future trends.

This type of investigation relies on observation as a means of collecting data.

be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances.

people can be interviewed, questionnaires distributed, visual records made, even

sounds and smells recorded.

they can be subsequently analysed.

complexity of the survey and the scope or extent of the survey.

The design is used to examine a relationship between two concepts.

 There are two broad classifications of relational statements i.e. an association

Causal statements describe what is sometimes called a ‘cause and effect’

The cause is referred to as the ‘independent variable’, the variable that is

affected is referred to as the ‘dependent variable’.

positive (where an increase in one results in the increase in the other, or

decrease results in a decrease).

the decrease in the other or vice versa).

 The degree of association is often measurable.

making certain decisions.

Experimental research attempts to isolate and control every relevant condition

conditions are manipulated.