EDUC 225

RECOGNIZING
CHILDREN WITH
SPECIAL NEEDS
CHILDREN WITH
LEARNING DISABILITIES

S. AUGUST-CALLISTE
 LEARNING DISABILITIES

CHILDREN WITH LEARNING

DISABILITIES ARE LIKE SNOWFLAKES;
EACH HAS HIS OR HER OWN UNIQUE
STRUCTURE, COMBINING STRENGTHS
AND NEEDS TO FORM AN INDIVIDUAL
PATTERN.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS
WITH LD
Academic achievement problems
a. Reading – word attack
b. Reading – comprehension
c. Written language
d. Spoken language
e. Mathematics
Memory problems
Auditory and Visual Perceptual Problems
Attention Problems (distractibility)
Are not risk takers
Social-Emotional Problems (social cognition deficits and self-
esteem problems)
 DEFINITION:
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILTIY
(A) IN GENERAL. The term “specific learning disability”
means a disorder in 1 or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language,
spoken or written, which disorder
may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. . . .
 DEFINITION

(B) DISORDERS INCLUDE. Such term includes such

conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. . . .
 DEFINITION

(C) DISORDERS NOT INCLUDED. Such term does not

include a learning problem that is primarily the result of visual,
hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of
emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or
economic disadvantage.
 PROBLEMS WITH THE DISCREPANCY
MODEL AS IT IS USED TO IDENTIFY
CHILDREN WITH LEARNING
DISABILITIES:
1. Discrepancies between IQ and achievement/ performance
are difficult to measure with young children.

2. Discrepancies between IQ and achievement/ performance

may exist for any number of reasons; thus, this approach is
really just helping us find children with “unexplained
underachievement” that may or may not be due to a learning
disability.
 PROBLEMS CONT’D

3. To find discrepancies we must wait until the gap between IQ

and achievement/ performance is wide enough to measure, and
this means that we must wait until the child has experienced
substantial failure with learning.

4. The “wait-to-fail” model creates a situation in which the

primary problems a child is experiencing get worse and are
frequently compounded by secondary problems with behavior,
self-concept, and academic readiness
IDEA 2004 INCLUDES THE RTI MODEL
AS ONE OPTION THAT SCHOOLS CAN
USE TO IDENTIFY STUDENTS WITH
LEARNING DISABILITIES.
(A) IN GENERAL. Notwithstanding section 607, when
determining whether a child has a specific learning disability as
defined in section 602 (29), a local educational agency shall not
be required to take into consideration whether a child has a
severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability
in oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression,
basic reading skill, reading comprehension, mathematical
calculation, or mathematical reasoning. . . .
 RTI MODEL & IDENTIFICATION

(B) ADDITIONAL AUTHORITY. In

determining whether a child has a specific
learning disability, a local educational agency
may use a process that determines if the child
responds to scientific, research-based
intervention as a part of the evaluation
procedures described in paragraphs (2) and (3).
(IDEA, 2004)
 RTI MODEL & IDENTIFICATION

Allows the use of information that shows how a

child has responded to scientific, research-based
interventions as one part of a comprehensive
evaluation of student’s needs. This approach is
called response to intervention.
 KEY COMPONENTS OF RTI

• An intervening hierarchy with three or more tiers in

which Tier I is a high-quality general learning
environment and the additional tiers provide more
help for students whose needs require more intensive
supports

• The use of evidence-based interventions to meet

students’ needs, often called standard protocol
approaches
 KEY COMPONENTS OF RTI

• Collaborative problem solving, which involves a

multidisciplinary team working together with parents
to design services that address the students’ needs

• Progress monitoring, or using data on student’s

achievement, performance, and other needs to
monitor progress, guide decision making, and plan
for future needs
 DYSLEXIA DEFINITION

One of several distinct learning disabilities, it is a specific

language-based disorder of constitutional origin characterized by
difficulties in single word decoding, usually reflecting insufficient
phonological processing. These difficulties in single word decoding
are often unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive and
academic abilities; they are not the result of generalized
developmental disability or sensory impairment. Dyslexia is
manifested by variable difficulty with different forms of language,
often including, in addition to problems with reading, a conspicuous
problem with acquiring proficiency in writing and spelling.
 DYSLEXIA

• The major conclusion is that children with dyslexia have brains that
operate differently from the brains of children without dyslexia.

• Although persons with dyslexia have difficulties in language-based

tasks (reading, spelling, writing, and phonological awareness), many
have well-developed abilities in visual, spatial, motor, and
nonverbal problem solving.

• Note that not all children with learning disabilities have dyslexia and
that dyslexia is often considered a medical term, whereas specific
learning disability is used in educational settings.
 ADHD DEFINITION
“Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a condition
affecting children and adults that is characterized by problems with
attention, impulsivity,
and overactivity”.
Although many children encounter periodic problems with attention
and follow-through, individuals with ADHD face lifelong
challenges and need a variety of supports to help them be
successful. Many individuals with ADHD may benefit from
medications used to help them focus and sustain their attention.

Symptoms of ADHD: Page 116 Table 4.1

CAUSES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES

No single cause of learning disabilities.

• some neurological differences and sensory deficits
•differences in brain structure among students who have reading
problems, attention deficits, and auditory processing difficulties
•may be genetic
•environmental factors, from inadequate prenatal health care to
exposure to harmful substances, may also lead to learning
disabilities
 PREVALENCE

The learning disabilities category makes up approximately 48

percent of all students with disabilities (U.S. Department of
Education, 2005).

Learning disabilities is the largest category of disability among

all racial and ethnic groups; however, there are differences in
identification patterns across groups.
 EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS

47 % of students with learning disabilities spend most of their

time in general education classes.

39% receive services in other settings for between one and one-
half and three and one-half hours a day.

13% spend over half of their school day in settings other than
the general classroom, and

1% receive services in a different environment

 IMPORTANT TO NOTE:
• All children with learning disabilities have learning problems of some kind.
• Not all children with academic problems have learning disabilities.

• Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of

disorders that includes different patterns of strengths and challenges.
• Learning disabilities are viewed as a problem not only of the school years but
also of early childhood and adult life.

• Today’s students with learning disabilities are a mixed group, some of whom
have neurologically based learning disabilities, whereas others have
unexplained underachievement.
• Learning disabilities may occur with other disabilities and may be found within
all cultural and linguistic groups.
 INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL

The information-processing model (IPM) is useful in helping us

understand the impact that a learning disability can have on a
student’s ability to take in, think about, and share things that he or
she is learning.

The four major components (input, processing, output, and

executive function) operate in the context of an emotional
environment that influences the processing of information. Each
component carries out an important function related to learning,
and optimum learning takes place when the components function
smoothly, as one system. A learning disability can be explained as
a glitch in this system.

Page 119 Figure 4.3

 PROBLEMS WITH INPUT

• visual perception problems: figure-ground (seeing an object

against the background), closure (completion of a figure), and
spatial relationship problems.

• Auditory perception difficulties: figure-ground auditory

problems (hearing speech against background noise) or
difficulties in sound discriminations and/or sound recognition

• sensory integration difficulties: involves the ability to use two or

more senses simultaneously and smoothly
Visual Perception/ Discrimination
READING
 PROBLEMS WITH PROCESSING OR
THINKING
Difficulties with memory and in organizing ideas or thoughts in
ways.
•sensory memory can hold large amounts of information for a
very short period of time; 2 to 3 seconds.
•short-term memory used to remember the directions and steps
for solving a math problem while simultaneously doing the
calculations.
•Long-term memory stores information that we have made our
own to draw on for future use.
Page 122, Figure 4.4
Problems with any of these forms of memory lead to major
learning difficulties. However, the greatest impact occurs when
students struggle with long-term memory storage and retrieval.
 PROCESSING THREE KINDS OF
MEMORY STORAGE:
• Semantic memory stores concepts, words, symbols, and
generalizations. This is the most frequently used form of
memory in school.
• Episodic memory is our ability to recall whole scenes or
episodes from our past. When we experience episodic
memory, we feel we are “right back there” with all senses
engaged. Often episodic memories are triggered by smells.
Episodic memories are often associated with strong emotions
that can be either positive or negative.
• Motor memory is our ability to program our body
movements. Our bodies learn patterns and retain them for
future use. We learn to ride a bicycle, play the piano, or write
our names. Some motor memories seem to last after we no
longer use them. Thus the expression “It’s like riding a bike.”
 THINKING

When problems occur in thinking, they are likely to stem from

an inability to organize thoughts in meaningful ways. In other
words, ideas remain fragmented and disconnected, so that
patterns and relationships across ideas never jell into useful
concepts. Interestingly, when information is stored in memory
as isolated bits and pieces, it is more difficult to retrieve and is
less useful for thinking. Because of retrieval problems,
structuring our teaching around concepts and big ideas is a
useful approach to helping our students
 PROBLEMS WITH OUTPUT

Output: the expression of ideas and thoughts, which can take several
forms.

When output problems affect speech, they may be called developmental

aphasia because the symptoms mirror those of a stroke patient with
speech difficulties.

These problems include word retrieval and speech fluency, which can
make communication difficult.

A second form of an output glitch involves the motor mechanics of

handwriting. The easiest way to understand this is to imagine that the
connection between the brain and the hand is not efficient. There is
“static on the line,” which makes it difficult for the hand to know what to
do and for the brain to understand what the hand has done.
 PROBLEMS WITH OUTPUT

• Difficulties with handwriting are sometimes called dysgraphia, which

literally means bad writing.

• When dysgraphia is combined with visual and auditory perceptual

problems or sensory integration difficulties, note taking during lectures
and copying from the board are virtually impossible.

• Another form that output learning disabilities can take is an inability to

both understand and produce gestures and facial expressions that
correspond with feelings and emotions. In this case, individuals have
difficulty interpreting emotional nuances that are communicated
through facial expressions and body language.
 PROBLEMS WITH OUTPUT

Individuals with these problems may also have a flat affect (an
absence of expression on the face) that can limit their ability to
express needs and wants, thus making communication more
problematic.

Social situations can be quite painful for these individuals,

creating an early pattern of social avoidance.
 PROBLEMS WITH EXECUTIVE
FUNCTIONS
The executive function, or metacognition, is the decision-
making component of this model. Decisions are made about
•What input to notice or screen out
•What strategies to use to store information or whether the
information needs to be stored
•How useful the information is
•How ideas and understandings will be expressed
 PROBLEMS WITH EXECUTIVE
FUNCTIONS
Metacognition also includes self-regulatory skills. We monitor
ourselves so that we can continuously adapt our thoughts,
speech, and actions to accomplish our goals. Self-regulatory
skills help us adapt to the environment, and they are essential.
Self-regulation implies that an individual is in control of and
responsible for his or her own actions. Self-regulation is
important for:
• learning
• social success
•to monitor our understanding
 PROBLEMS WITH EXECUTIVE
FUNCTIONS
Difficulties with the executive function can show up as ADHD.
Individuals may have difficulty maintaining their focus and can
be easily distracted. This distractibility occurs because they are
unable to screen out stimuli that are irrelevant to the present
task. Therefore, all stimuli are given equal weight, and the
information-processing system can be overwhelmed with input.
 EMOTIONAL CONTEXT OF
INFORMATION PROCESSING
One’s emotional environment and internal emotional state both
have a dramatic impact on one’s ability to learn.

Emotional environments that are harsh or perceived as dangerous,

causes our internal emotional states to become acutely stressed and
defensive.

Strong negative emotions have an impact on all aspects of our

ability to process information, coloring our perceptions, scrambling
our thinking, interrupting our ability to communicate, and, perhaps
most important, clouding our judgment or executive functioning.
 EMOTIONAL CONTEXT OF
INFORMATION PROCESSING
Repeated experiences of failure and frustration can lead to
anticipatory anxiety in the face of new situations, even when
the situation is not particularly stressful.

When an individual has a learning disability that affects his or

her ability to read and understand social cues, social
situations can feel threatening because people are often very
unpredictable. The individual may have difficulty reading and
understanding social cues due to this unpredictability.
 THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING
MODEL AS A SYSTEM
The components of the IPM work together as a system. Each
component influences and is influenced by others in a continuous
feedback loop. An anomaly or problem in one area will have an
impact on other components.

•For example, a student with a visual processing problem that affects

closure will have a difficult time recognizing the differences between
the letter pairs a/u, n/h, a/d, h/b, a/g, c/o, a/q, c/d, t/f, i/l, i/j, o/p, r/n,
and v/y.

•If he or she has a problem with visual rotations and mirror images,
then the following letter pairs will become difficult: b/d, q/p, q/g, u/n,
h/y, m/w, and g/p. With these moderate perceptual difficulties, reading
becomes a struggle.
 THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING
MODEL AS A SYSTEM
• Moderate problems with input will also hamper processing and
thinking, making it difficult to learn. This will inhibit output (the
ability to share what has been learned), because the information
has not been deeply processed and stored in long-term memory.

• In addition to the influences of each IPM component on the

others, disabilities are further complicated because of the
multiplicity of problems. It is not unusual, for example, for a
student to have problems with visual perception, short-term
memory, sequencing information, organizing thoughts, and
handwriting. This same individual might be strong in auditory
perception, creative insights, and talking.
 CREATIVITY

Persons with Learning Disabilities are sometimes very creative

in their outlook and ideas.

Imagine you are on a desert island and one of the only things
you rescued from your ship was a large paper clip. How many
uses can you think of for it?

You have two minutes to come up with and write your

suggestions.
 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Students with learning disabilities often need modifications in their

assignments in order to minimize the impact of their disabilities and
to facilitate their success. Kevin’s IEP, for example, includes
extended time on exams, no penalty for spelling errors on essays
written in class, and ability to use the computer for extensive written
work. You are Kevin’s high school English teacher, and one of your
students has protested that giving these accommodations to Kevin is
not fair. The protest is growing, and now several students have
voiced their resentment of “Kevin’s special treatment.” How will
you handle this? What are your personal beliefs about this issue, and
how will your beliefs affect your professional decisions? What does
“fair” mean in the educational context for individuals with special
learning needs?
 DEFINITION

Dyslexia. A severe difficulty in understanding or using one or more areas of language,

including listening, speaking, reading, writing, and spelling. Dyslexia is a broad term
defining a learning disability that impairs a person’s fluency or comprehension accuracy
in being able to read and spell and which can manifest itself as a difficulty with
phonological awareness, phonological decoding, orthographic coding, auditory short-term
memory, and/or rapid naming. Dyslexia is separate and distinct from reading difficulties
resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing,
or from poor or inadequate reading instruction. It is believed that dyslexia can affect
between 5 to 10 percent of a given population although there have been no studies to
indicate an accurate percentage.
 DEFINITION

Dyscalculia. A severe difficulty in understanding and using symbols or

functions needed for success in mathematics. Dyscalculia (or math
disability) is a specific learning disability involving innate difficulty in
learning or comprehending simple mathematics. It is akin to dyslexia and
includes difficulty in understanding numbers, learning how to manipulate
numbers, learning math facts, and a number of other related symptoms
(although there is no exact form of the disability). Math disabilities can also
occur as the result of some types of brain injury, in which case the proper
term is acalculia, to distinguish it from dyscalculia which is of innate,
genetic or developmental origin.
 DEFINITION
Dysgraphia. A severe difficulty in producing handwriting that is legible and written at an
age-appropriate speed. Dysgraphia is a deficiency in the ability to write, primarily in
terms of handwriting, but perhaps also in terms of coherence. It occurs regardless of the
ability to read and is not due to intellectual impairment. People with dysgraphia usually
can write on some level, and often lack other fine motor skills and may be cross dominant,
finding tasks such as tying shoes difficult. It often does not affect all fine motor skills.
They can also lack basic grammar and spelling skills (for example, having difficulties
with the letters p, q, b, and d), and often will write the wrong word when trying to
formulate thoughts (on paper). In childhood, the disorder generally emerges when the
child is first introduced to writing. The child may make inappropriately sized and spaced
letters, or write wrong or misspelled words despite thorough instruction. Children with the
disorder may have other learning disabilities, but they usually have no social or other
academic problems. Cases of dysgraphia in adults generally occur after some neurological
trauma. Dysgraphia may also be diagnosed in a person with Tourette syndrome, ADHD,
learning disability or an autism spectrum disorder such as Asperger syndrome.
 DEFINITION

Dysnomia. A marked difficulty in remembering names or recalling words needed for oral
or written language. Dysnomia is a difficulty retrieving the correct words, names, or
numbers from memory. Dysnomia is a learning disability present from childhood which
can affect speech, writing, and/or math. Word recall problems are classified as dysnomia
when they are severe enough to interfere with learning or with daily life. Doctors use
neuropsychological and speech-language pathology tests to diagnose the condition.

Dyspraxia. A severe difficulty in performing drawing, writing, buttoning, and other tasks
requiring fine motor skill, or in sequencing the necessary movements.
 CLOSING

When we use the term learning disability we are referring to a

wide range of learning problems that coexist with a variety of
learning strengths. Therefore, each student with a learning
disability will have a unique profile and will need an educational
environment that can address these differences.
 REFERENCE

Kirk, S., Gallagher, J. J., Coleman, M. R., Anastasiow, N.

(2009). Educating Exceptional Children (12th ed.). Boston New
York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.