Learning Competencies

• CATEGORIZE THE BIOLOGICAL

MOLECULES(LIPIDS, CARBOHYDRATES,
PROTEINS, AND NUCLEIC ACIDS) ACCORDING
TO THEIR STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

• EXPLAIN THE ROLE OF EACH BIOLOGICAL

MOLECULE IN SPECIFIC METABOLIC PROCESSES
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Distinguish a carbohydrate from a lipid given its

structure and function,
• Explain the roles played by carbohydrates and lipids
in biological systems.
• Detect the presence of carbohydrates and lipids in
food products using simple chemical tests.
 UNLOCKING TERMS

• Macromolecule • Glycosidic Linkage

• Polymer • Polysaccharide
• Monomer • Starch
• Dehydration reaction • Glycogen
• Hydrolysis • Cellulose
• Carbohydrates • Chitin
• Monosaccharide • Lipids
• Disaccharide • Fat
 UNLOCKING TERMS

• Fatty Acid • Calorie

• Triacylglycerol • Oligosaccharide
• Saturated Fatty Acid
• Unsaturated Fatty Acid
• Trans Fat
• Phospholipids
• Steroids
• Cholesterol
 ACTIVITY

Interpreting Food
labels
 GUIDE QUESTIONS

• How many serving are in this container?

• Would you agree that this is the reasonable amount of food
you would consume per serving? How many total food
calories (C) in this container?
• How much fat is present in one serving? What kind of fat?
What is the importance of consuming fats in our diet?
• How much carbohydrates are present in one serving? What
kind of carbohydrates? What is the importance of consuming
carbohydrates in our diet?
• Can this food be eaten often or sparingly? Justify.
CARBOHYDRATES
Kinds, Structure and Function
 CARBOHYDRATES

• In the early part of the 19th century, substances such

as wood, starch, and linen were found to be composed
mainly of molecules containing atoms of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), and to have the
general formula C6H12O6;
• other organic molecules with similar formulas were
found to have a similar ratio of hydrogen to oxygen.
 CARBOHYDRATES

• Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a

1:2:1 ratio
• Primary fuel source for body cells
• Divided into two main classes:
• Simple sugars
• Complex sugars
• most abundant and widespread organic
substances in nature
• They are essential constituents of all living
things
• formed by green plants from carbon dioxide
and water during the process of photosynthesis
• serve organisms as energy sources and as
essential structural components
••  
Carbohydrates are very common to us, we
call many of them “sugars”
• Are structural components of cell wall and
wood of tree.
• Historically were once considered the
“Hydrates of carbon” because their molecular
formulas in many cases corresponds to
• It is more realistic to define carbohydrates as
polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy
ketone.
Aldose – polyhydroxyaldehyde, eg glucose
Ketose – polyhydroxyketone, eg fructose
Triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose, etc. –
carbohydrates that contain three, four, five,
six, etc. carbons per molecule (usually five
or six); eg. Aldohexose, ketopentose, etc.
4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

*Monosaccharides
*Disaccharides
*Oligosaccharides
*Polysaccharides
 Monosaccharides
• Are found in grapes, other fruits, and
honey.
• Three of the most important simple
sugars
• glucose—also known as dextrose, grape
sugar, and corn sugar
• fructose - fruit sugar
 Monosaccharides
• galactose
They have the same molecular formula, (C6H12O6), but,
because their atoms have different structural arrangements
the sugars have different characteristics; i.e., they are
isomers.
Slight changes in structural arrangements are detectable
by living things and influence the biological significance
of isomeric compounds., for example the degree of
sweetness of various sugars differs according to the
arrangement of the hydroxyl groups (−OH) that compose
part of the molecular structure; a specific structural
arrangement.
The energy in the chemical bonds of glucose indirectly
MONOSACCHARIDES
 GLUCOSE
• Also called hexose or
dextrose

• Principle building block

of all other
carbohydrates

• Typically exists in the

ring form
 FRUCTOSE
• Also called levulose

• Isomer of glucose

• Metabolized into glucose by the liver

• Small amounts are converted into

glycogen, lactic acid, or fat

• Found in fruit, honey, and high fructose

corn syrup
 GALACTOSE
• Not usually found free in nature in large
quantities

• Isomer of glucose

• Typically found as a subunit of lactose

• Converted to glucose by the liver

• Used as an immediate energy source or is

stored as glycogen
 OTHER
MONOSACCHARIDES
• Ribose
• Five carbon sugar
• Used in the formation of RNA
• Very little present in our diet

• Deoxyribose
• Five carbon sugar
• Used in the formation of DNA
• Not considered a nutrient of our diet since our bodies
can make all that it ever needs.
 SOME CLASSES OF
MONOSACCHARIDE
Number of Carbon Aldose Ketone

4 Aldotetrose Ketotetrose

5 Aldopentose Ketopentose

6 Aldohexose Ketohexose

7 Aldoheptose Ketoheptose

8 Aldooctose Ketooctose
glyceraldehyde *
CH2CHCH O
an aldotriose OH OH

CHO CHO
H OH HO H
CH2OH CH2OH
D-(+)-glyceraldehyde L-(-)-glyceraldehyde

D & L are used to relate configuration of the chiral center

most removed from the reducing group ( C=O ). If the -OH
is on the right in the Fischer projection, then it is D, if the -OH
is on the left, then it is L
aldotetroses * *
CH2CHCHCH O
OH OHOH

CHO CHO
H OH HO H
H OH HO H
CH2OH CH2OH

D-erythrose L-erythrose

CHO CHO
H OH HO H
HO H H OH
CH2OH CH2OH

L-threose D-threose
 DISACCHARIDES

• Two molecules of a simple sugar that are linked to

each other, or double sugar.
• The disaccharide sucrose, or table sugar, consists of
one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose
• the most familiar sources of sucrose are sugar beets
and cane sugar.
• Milk sugar, or lactose, and maltose are also
disaccharides
• Disaccharides must be broken down into their
respective monosaccharides for living things to utilize
Disaccharides:
(+)-maltose “malt sugar”
two glucose units (alpha)
(+)-cellobiose
two glucose units (beta)
(+)-lactose “milk sugar”
galactose & glucose
(+)-sucrose “table sugar”
glucose & fructose
DISACCHARIDES
 MALTOSE

• Constructed by a condensation reaction

• Composed of two glucose molecules
• Possesses an alpha bond
• Commonly produced by fermentation reactions called malting
• Most maltose digested is the result of starch digestion
 SUCROSE

• Constructed by a condensation reaction

• Composed of one glucose and one fructose
• Possesses an alpha bond
• Commonly called table sugar and is found in plants such as
sugar cane and maple syrup
• Purified to form brown, white, and powdered sugars
 LACTOSE

• Constructed by a condensation reaction

• Composed of one glucose and one galactose
• Possesses a beta bond
• Beta bonds are difficult to digest
• Primary sugar in milk and milk products
 OLIGOSSACHARIDES
carbohydrate from three to six units of simple sugars
(monosaccharides)
Oligosaccharides have been prepared by partially breaking
down more complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides).
few naturally occurring oligosaccharides are found in
plants. Raffinose, a trisaccharide found in many plants,
consists of melibiose (galactose and glucose) and fructose.
Another plant trisaccharide is gentianose. Maltotriose, a
trisaccharide of glucose, occurs in some plants and in the
blood of certain arthropods.
 OLIGOSACCHARIDES
• 3-10 monosaccharides: raffinose and stachyose
• Found in beans and legumes
• Not digested by the body
• Metabolized by bacteria in the large intestine
• Raffinose=galactose+glucose+fructose
• Stachyose=galactose+galactose+
glucose+fructose
 POLYSACCHARIDES
• (means many sugars) represent most of the
structural and energy-reserve carbohydrates
found in nature.
• Large molecules that may consist of as many as
10,000 monosaccharide units linked together
• polysaccharides vary considerably in size, in
structural complexity, and sugar content
• cellulose, the principal structural component of
plants, is a complex polysaccharide comprising
many glucose units linked together; it is the
 POLYSACCHARIDES
• The starch found in plants and the glycogen
found in animals also are complex glucose
polysaccharides.
 starch (from the old English word stercan
meaning “to stiffen”) is found mostly in
seeds, roots, and stems, where it is stored as
an available energy source for plants. Plant
starch may be processed into such foods as
bread, or it may be consumed directly—as
potatoes, for instance.
Polysaccharides
starch
cellulose
Starch 20% amylose (water soluble)
80% amylopectin (water insoluble)
amylose + H2O  (+)-maltose
(+)-maltose + H2O  (+)-glucose
starch is a poly glucose (alpha-glucoside to C-4)

O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O
 POLYSACCHARIDES
• Digestible polysaccharides:
• Starch
• Amylose
• Amylopectin
• Glycogen

• Non-digestible polysaccharides: fibers

• Soluble fiber
• Insoluble fiber
 STARCHES
• 3000 monosaccharides

• Contain alpha bonds

• Amylose is straight chain

• Amylopectin is branched
chain

• High Glycemic Index

 GLYCOGEN

• Storage form of glucose in

animals and humans

• Structure is similar to
amylopectin but with more
complex branching

• Numerous alpha bonds

• Found in liver (400 kcal) and

muscles (1400 kcal)
 FIBER
• Dietary fiber= fibers found naturally in foods
• Functional fibers= fiber added to foods that has
shown to provide health benefits
• Total fiber= dietary fiber + functional fiber
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
FIBERS
• Contain beta bonds

• Insoluble: not fermented

• Cellulose
• Hemicellulose
• Lignin*

• Soluble: 1.5-2.5 kcal/g

• Gum
• Pectin
• Mucilage
FIBERS
 BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
OF CARBOHYDRATES
• The importance of carbohydrates to living things can
hardly be overemphasized.
The energy stores of most animals and plants are
both carbohydrate and lipid in nature
carbohydrates are generally available as an
immediate energy source, whereas lipids act as a
long-term energy resource and tend to be utilized at
a slower rate.
glucose, the prevalent uncombined, or free, sugar
circulating in the blood of higher animals, is
essential to cell function. The proper regulation of
 BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
OF CARBOHYDRATES
• The ability of ruminants, such as cattle,
sheep, and goats, to convert the
polysaccharides present in grass and similar
feeds into protein provides a major source of
protein for man
• A number of medically important antibiotics,
such as streptomycin, are carbohydrate
derivatives.
 ROLE IN THE BIOSPHERE

• The essential process in the biosphere, the portion of

the Earth in which life can occurs
• green plants converts carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere into carbohydrates, using light energy
from the Sun. This process, called photosynthesis,it
results in both the release of oxygen gas into the
atmosphere and the transformation of light energy
into the chemical energy of carbohydrates.
• The energy stored by plants during the formation of
carbohydrates is used by animals to carry out
mechanical work and to perform biosynthetic
 ROLE IN THE BIOSPHERE

• All green plants photosynthesize in the same

way, yielding as an immediate product the
compound phosphoglyceric acid
• This compound then is transformed into cell-
wall components such as cellulose, varying
amounts of sucrose, and starch—depending on
the plant type—and a wide variety of
polysaccharides, other than cellulose and starch,
that function as essential structural components.  
FORMULA FOR PHOSPHOGLYCERIC
ACID
 ROLE IN HUMAN NUTRITION

• The total caloric, or energy, requirement for an

individual depends on age, occupation, and other
factors but generally ranges between 2,000 and 4,000
calories per 24-hour ,it can also be called the
kilocalorie
• Carbohydrate that can be used by man produces four
calories per gram as opposed to nine calories per gram
of fat and four per gram of protein)
• A high proportion of individual's daily energy
requirement may be supplied by carbohydrate, with
most of the remainder coming from a variety of fat
sources.
 Carbohydrates may compose as much as 80
percent of the total caloric intake in the
human diet
 for a given diet, the proportion of starch to
total carbohydrate is quite variable,
depending upon the prevailing customs.
 In the Far East and in areas of Africa, for
example, where rice or tubers such as manioc
provide a major food source, starch may
account for as much as 80 percent of the total
 In a typical Western diet, 33 to 50
percent of the caloric intake is in the
form of carbohydrate. Approximately
half is represented by starch; another
third by table sugar (sucrose) and milk
sugar (lactose); and smaller percentages
by monosaccharides such as glucose and
fructose, which are common in fruits,
honey, syrups, and certain vegetables
such as artichokes, onions, and sugar
 ROLE IN ENERGY STORAGE

• Starches, the major plant-energy-reserve

polysaccharides used by man, are stored in plants in
the form spherical granules that vary in diameter from
about three to 100 micrometres
• Most plant starches consist of a mixture of two
components, amylose and amylopectin.
• plants have large numbers of specialized cell
called parenchymatous cells, the principal
function of which is the storage of starch;
 examples of plants with these cells include
root vegetables and tubers and the starch
content of plants varies considerably
 the highest concentrations are found in
seeds and in cereal grains, which contain up
to 80 percent of their total carbohydrate as
starch.
 most plant species store approximately 25
DIAGRAM OF AMYLOSE AND
AMYLOPECTINS
 Starches are not formed by animals;
instead, they form a closely related
polysaccharide, glycogen.
 all vertebrate and invertebrate animal
cells, and numerous fungi and
protozoans, contain some glycogen this
substance are found in the liver and
muscle cells of higher animals.
 Under conditions of stress or muscular
activity in animals, glycogen is rapidly
Glycogen acts as an immediate
carbohydrate reserve. Furthermore, the
amount of glycogen present at any given
time, especially in the liver, directly
reflects an animal's nutritional state; i.e.,
when adequate food are available, both
glycogen and fat reserves of the body
increase, but when food decrease or when
the food intake falls below the minimum
requirements ,The glycogen reserves are
depleted quite rapidly,
 ROLE IN PLANT AND ANIMAL
STRUCTURE

• most of the carbohydrate found in nature occurs as

structural components in the cell wall of plants.
• Carbohydrates in plant cell walls consist of
several distinct layers, one contains a higher
concentration of cellulose than the others
• The physical and chemical properties of cellulose
are strikingly different from those of the amylose
component of starch.
• In most plants, the cell wall is 0.5 micrometres thick
and contains a mixture of cellulose, pentose-
containing polysaccharides, and an inert plastic-like
material called lignin.
• The amounts of cellulose and pentose may vary;
most plants contain between 40 and 60 percent
cellulose,.
• Polysaccharides also function as major structural
components in animals.
• Chitin, which is similar to cellulose, is found in
insects and other arthropods.
 MACROMOLECULE
• Any of several large molecules, such
as proteins, carbohydrates or nucleic
acid
 POLYMER
• Large molecular chain of smaller
molecular sub units linked together.
 MONOMER
• Small molecule that is linked to
other molecules to form a polymer
DEHYDRATION REACTION

• A chemical reaction that involves

the loss of water molecules from a
reacting molecule

• “putting together while losing water”

 HYDROLYSIS
• Chemical decomposition reaction in
which a compound is split into other
compounds by reacting with water
 CARBOHYDRATES
• Are sugar, starches, and fibers found
in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk
products
 MONOSACCHARIDE
• The simplest form of carbohydrates and
classified into two (aldose and ketose)
• carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed
to simpler carbohydrates; eg. Glucose or
fructose.
 DISACCHARIDE
• Made of two monomer of carbohydrates
(monosaccharide) after hydrolysis
• carbohydrates that can be hydrolyzed into two
monosaccharide units; eg. Sucrose, which is
hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose.
 OLIGOSACCHARIDE
• Oligos in Greek meaning “few” yields 3-
10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis
• carbohydrates that can be hydrolyzed
into a few monosaccharide units.
 POLYSACCHARIDE
• Hydrolyzed to more than 10
monosaccharide units
• carbohydrates that are polymeric
sugars; eg Starch or cellulose.
 STARCH
• Amylum, is a polymer carbohydrate
consisting of a large number of
glucose units joined by glycosidic
bond
 GLYCOGEN
• Multibranched polysaccharide
that serves as storage of energy
in humans and animals, fungi
and bacteria.
 CELLULOSE
• Complex carbohydrates made up
of more than 3000 glucose units.
 CHITIN
• Fiber forming polymer that forms a
protective role in many lower
eukaryotes similar to that of
cellulose in plants.
• Nitrogen containing polysaccharide
 CALORIE
• Units of energy
• Gram calorie (cal) is the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of one gram
of water by one degree Celsius at a pressure
of one atmosphere.
• 1 gram of carbohydrate = 4 calories
• 1 gram of fat = 9 calories
 LIPIDS
• Substances that dissolve in nonpolar
solvents
• Includes fats, waxes, sterols,
glycerides and phospholipids
 TRIACYLGLYCEROL
• Derived from glycerol and 3 fatty acids
• Triglyceride
• Main constituents of body fat in humans
and other animals
 FATS

• Also called triacylglyceride

 FATTY ACIDS
• Is a carboxylic acid consisting of
a hydrocarbon chain and a
terminal carboxyl group
 SATURATED FATTY ACID

•A type of fat in which the

fatty acid chain is
predominantly single bond.
UNSATURATED FATTY ACID
• There is at least one double bond within the
fatty acid chain
• A fatty acid is monounsaturated if it contains
only one double bond, and polyunsaturated if
it contains more than one double bond.
 TRANS FAT
• Artificial fats
• Trans fatty acid
• Created in industrial processes that adds
hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils that
make them more solid.
 PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• Class of lipids that are the major
components of cell membrane
• Consist of glycerol molecule and 2 fatty
acids and a phosphate group.
 STEROIDS
• Composed of 17 carbons atoms bonded
to four fused rings
• Includes hormones, alkaloids and
vitamins
 CHOLESTEROL
• Is a waxy, fat like substance found in the
body
• Needed to make hormones, vitamin D
and substances that help digest food.
GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE
• A type of bond that links
carbohydrtaes to other group,
which may or may not be another
carbohydrates