What Is Biomass:

• In a process called "Photosynthesis", plants

capture sunlight and transform it into chemical
energy.
• This energy may then be converted into electricity,
heat, or liquid fuels using a number of different
energy conversion processes.
• The organic resources that are used to produce
energy using these processes are collectively called
"biomass". Biomass is a versatile energy source.  
 
 What Is Biomass:
• Organic matter that is used as a source of
biomass energy includes trees, timber waste,
wood chips, corn, rice hulls, peanut shells,
sugar cane, grass clippings, leaves, manure,
and municipal solid waste.

• Biomass is made up mainly of the elements

carbon and hydrogen;
 
 What is Biomass?

• “Biomass is all non-fossil organic materials

that have an intrinsic chemical energy
content.”
• Distillers’ Grains, Coffee Grounds, Grape Seeds and
Skins, Sugarcane Bagasse, Sawdust and Tobacco
Leaves.
 Biomass

• Any organic matter formed, directly or indirectly, by

virtue of photosynthesis, is called biomass

•Crop residues
•Forest residues
•Agro-industrial residues
•Animal waste
•Aquatic plants
•Purpose grown trees
•Others like MSW and synthetic organics.
 Biomass
• Bagasse
• Bamboo dust
• Cotton stalk
• Coconut coir
• Corn cob
• Groundnut shell
• Jute stick
• Mustard shell
• Pine needle
• Rice husk
 Why Biomass?

•Fossil fuels are fast depleting

•Gap between supply & demand increasing
•Green house gas emissions steadily increasing

• Biomass is a renewable source and available

in abundance
 Biomass sources
Wood is a typical source of biomass

Biomass is carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen
based.
Biomass energy is derived
from five distinct energy
sources: garbage, wood,
waste, landfill gases, and
alcohol fuels.
 Landfill Gas
 Landfill gas is generated by the decay (anaerobic
digestion) of buried trash and garbage in landfills.
 When the organic waste decomposes, it generates
gas consisting of approximately 50 percent
methane, the major component of natural gas.
 Anaerobic digestion converts organic matter to a
mixture of methane, the major component of
natural gas, and carbon dioxide.
 Biomass such as wastewater (sewage), manure, or
food processing wastes, is mixed with water and
fed into a digester tank without air.
 Landfill gas -Landfill gas is a complex mix of different
gases created by the action of microorganisms within a
landfill.
• Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent
methane, with the remainder being mostly
carbon dioxide.
• Landfill gas also contains varying amounts of
nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour, hydrogen sulphide,
and other contaminants.
• Most of these other contaminants are known as
"non-methane organic compounds" or NMOCs.
• Some inorganic contaminants (for example mercury)
are also known to be present in landfill gas.
Landfill compositions
A landfill site (also known as tip, dump or rubbish dump and
historically as a midden), is a site for the disposal of waste
materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment.

A landfill in Poland A section of a landfill

 Wood energy
• Wood energy is derived both from direct use
of harvested wood as a fuel and from wood
waste streams.
• The largest source of energy from wood is
pulping liquor or “black liquor,” a waste
product from processes of the pulp, paper
and paperboard industry.
 Waste energy
• Waste energy is the second-largest source of
biomass energy.
• The main contributors of waste energy are
municipal solid waste (MSW),
manufacturing waste, and landfill gas.
• Biomass alcohol fuel, or ethanol, is derived
primarily from sugarcane and corn.
• It can be used directly as a fuel or as an additive
to gasoline.
• Biomass can be converted to other usable forms
of energy like methane gas or transportation
fuels like ethanol and biodiesel.
• Rotting garbage and agricultural waste, release
methane gas—also called "landfill gas" or
"biogas.
• Crops like corn and sugar cane can be fermented
to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol.
• Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be
produced from left-over food products like
vegetable oils and animal fats
 Composition of Biomass
 Plant cell wall is constituted by mainly 6 components: (i)
cellulose, (ii) hemicelluloses, (iii) lignin, (iv) water soluble sugars,
amino acids and aliphatic acids, (v) ether and alcohol-soluble
constituents (e.g. fats, oils, waxes, resin and many pigments), and
(iv) proteins.

These components build up plant biomass. Proportion of these
constituents vary in different groups of plants and even in the
same group.

If the concentration of sugar is high, the biomass will be sugary
e.g. sugarcane, and sugar beet.

Similarly, high amount of starch present in biomass yields the
starchy biomass e.g. potato and tapioca.
 Chemical composition of lignocellulosic material, and cotton (on %
dry weight basis).
Sources of Cellulose Hemicellul Lignin Protein
biomass ose (N x 6.25)
Birch 44.9 32.7 19.3 0.5
angiosperm
Spruce 46.1 24.6 26.3 0.2
gymnosperm
Crop residues 30-45 16-27 3-13 3.6-7.2

Wood 45-56 10-25 18-30 -

residues
Cotton 89.0 5.0 0.0 1.3
Properties Biomass
Volatile matter (dry 60 – 90%
basis)
Fixed Carbon (dry <5 - ~25%
basis)
Ash (dry basis) <1 - ~25%
C ~ 50%
H ~10%
O ~ 40%
Calorific value (MJ/kg) 16 - 19
 Proximate analyses of agricultural residues
Properties Rice Maize
husk stalk
Moisture (%) 6.65 8.42

Ash (%) 19.11 5.25

Volatile 60.90 70.31

matter (%)
Fixed carbon 13.34 16.03
(%)
Higher 13,233 14,357
heating value (kJ/kg)

Lower 12,054 12,905

heating value (kJ/kg)
 Proximate analysis
• Moisture content is of important interest since it
corresponds to one of the main criteria for the selection of
energy conversion process technology.
• Thermal conversion technology requires biomass fuels
with low moisture content, while those with high moisture
content are more appropriate for biological-based process
such as fermentation or anaerobic digestion.
• moisture content of lesser than 10% is more suitable to
serve as feedstock for thermal conversion technologies.
• The ash content of biomass influences the expenses
related to handling and processing to be included in the
overall conversion cost.
• On the other hand, the chemical composition of the ash is
a determinant parameter to consider for the operation of a
thermal conversion unit, since it gives rise to problems of
slagging, fouling, sintering and corrosion.
 Ultimate analyses of agricultural residues
Element Rice husk Maize

N, % 0.37 1.3

C, % 38.00 44.2

H, % 4.73 5.8

S, % 0.09 <0.01

O, % 50.2 43.5
 Biomass conversion process to useful energy

• Conversion technologies may release the energy

directly, in the form of heat or electricity, or may
convert it to another form, such as liquid biofuel or
combustible biogas.
• Thermal conversion
These are processes in which heat is the dominant
mechanism to convert the biomass into another
chemical form.
The basic alternatives of combustion, pyrolysis,
and gasification are separated principally by the
extent to which the chemical reactions involved are
allowed to proceed (mainly controlled by the
availability of oxygen and conversion temperature).
 Direct Combustion
 Direct combustion is the burning of material by
direct heat.
 Biomass such as wood, garbage, manure, straw,
and biogas can be burned without processing
to produce hot gases for heat or steam.
 This process ranges from burning wood in
fireplaces to burning garbage in a fluidized bed
boiler to produce heat or steam to generate
electric power.
 Direct combustion is the simplest biomass
technology and may be very economical if the
biomass source is nearby.
 What is Pyrolysis?
“Pyrolysis is thermal cracking in the absence
of oxygen.”

“Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of

organic material at elevated temperatures, in
the absence of gases such as air or oxygen.”

Heat is introduced,
O2 excluded
An endothermic reaction
 Pyrolysis
 Pyrolysis is the thermal degradation of
biomass by heat in the absence of oxygen.
 Biomass feedstocks, such as wood or
garbage, are heated to a temperature
between 800 and 1400 deg.F, but no oxygen
is introduced to support combustion.
 Pyrolysis results in three products: gas, fuel
oil, and charcoal.
Pyrolysis of carbonaceous fuels
 Pyrolysis of Biomass
a s
HEAT eG
l
ti b
s
bu
o m
C
Bio-Oil
Vapour Condensation

Biomass Biocha
r
 Pyrolytic reaction using cellulose
• 3C6H10O5 HEAT C6H8O + 8H2O+ CH4+2CO+2CO2+ 7C
cellulose (Liquid Bio-Oil) Water of Pyrolysis (Combustible Gas) Biochar
 Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass
Objective to maximize liquid yield
The three main variables in the pyrolysis
process are:
• Reaction temperature.
• Biomass heating rate.
• Vapour residence time.

 Moderate temperatures ≈ 500°C and short

vapour residence time are required to
maximize liquid yield.
 Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass
• Product yields (dry feed basis) for pyrolysis of wood.
Mode Conditions Liquid Char Gas

Fast Moderate temperature,

75% 12% 13%
pyrolysis short residence time

Slow Low temperature, very

30% 35% 35%
Pyrolysis long residence time

Gasificati High temperature, long

5% 10% 85%
on residence time.
Fluidised bed method
Bubbling fluid bed reactor with electrostatic precipitator
 
 Yields vs Reaction Temperature for Grape Seeds and Skins
------- 5 seconds residence time

60
Maximum liquid yield
50
Char
Yields Weight%

40

30 Liquid

Gas
20

10

0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
Reaction Temperature °C
 Grape Skin Pyrolysis Yields vs Residence Time
Reaction Temperature 500°C

40
35
30
25
Yield %

20
Liquid

15 Gas
10 Solid
5
0
2.5 secs 5 secs 20 secs
Vapour Residence Time
 Heat of pyrolysis vs heating value of product gas
for grape skins
3.0

2.5
Heat kJ/g Grape Skin Feed

2.0

1.5
Heat of pyrolysis

1.0

0.5 Heating value of product gas

0.0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650
Reaction Temperature °C
 The Challenges
For upgrading of bio-oil to transport fuels

Low volatility
Low heating value.
High viscosity
Corrosiveness
Coking
 Alternatives to upgrading

 Gasification of bio-oil to syngas

 Combination of bio-oil with diesel

 Conclusions
Pyrolysis of Biomass

• Rapidly developing technology

• Added Value Economy
• Carbon negative solution Environment 
• Increased bulk and energy density Economy
Environment 
• More work needs to be done for upgrading
to transport fuels
 Gasification
• A process that uses heat, pressure, and steam to
convert materials directly into a gas composed
primarily of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

• Gasification technologies rely four key

engineering factors
1. Gasification reactor atmosphere (level of
oxygen or air content).
2. Reactor design.
3. Internal and external heating.
4. Operating temperature.
 Gasification
• Typical raw materials - coal, petroleum-based
materials, and organic materials.

• The feedstock is prepared and fed, in either

dry or slurried form, into a sealed reactor
chamber called a gasifier.

• The feedstock is subjected to high heat,

pressure, and either an oxygen-rich or oxygen-
starved environment within the gasifier.
Raw Materials for Gasification
 Gasification
• Products of gasification :
* Hydrocarbon gases (also called syngas).
* Hydrocarbon liquids (oils).
* Char (carbon black and ash).

• Syngas is primarily carbon monoxide and

hydrogen (more than 85 percent by
volume) and smaller quantities of carbon
dioxide and methane
Gasifier Plant
Gasifier Plant
 Gasifier
• In a gasifier, the carbonaceous material undergoes several different
processes:

• The dehydration or drying process occurs at around 100°C. Typically the

resulting steam is mixed into the gas flow and may be involved with
subsequent chemical reactions, notably the water-gas reaction if the
temperature is sufficiently high enough .
• The pyrolysis (or devolatilization) process occurs at around 200-300°C.
Volatiles are released and char is produced, resulting in up to 70% weight
loss for coal. The process is dependent on the properties of the
carbonaceous material and determines the structure and composition of
the char, which will then undergo gasification reactions.
• The combustion process occurs as the volatile products and some of the
char reacts with oxygen to primarily form carbon dioxide and small
amounts of carbon monoxide, which provides heat for the subsequent
gasification reactions. Letting C represent a carbon-containing
organic compound, the basic reaction here is
 Gasification
• The gasification process occurs as the char reacts
with carbon and steam to produce carbon
monoxide and hydrogen, via the reaction

• In addition, the reversible gas phase

water gas shift reaction reaches equilibrium very
fast at the temperatures in a gasifier.
• This balances the concentrations of carbon
monoxide, steam, carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
 Gasification
• In essence, a limited amount of oxygen or air is introduced
into the reactor to allow some of the organic material to be
"burned" to produce carbon monoxide and energy, which
drives a second reaction that converts further organic
material to hydrogen and additional carbon dioxide.
• Further reactions occur when the formed carbon monoxide
and residual water from the organic material react to form
methane and excess carbon dioxide.
• This third reaction occurs more abundantly in reactors that
increase the residence time of the reactive gases and
organic materials, as well as heat and pressure.
• Catalysts are used in more sophisticated reactors to
improve reaction rates, thus moving the system closer to
the reaction equilibrium for a fixed residence time.
 Gasification
 Biomass can be used to produce methane
through heating.
 Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, can be derived from biomass.
 Hydrogen, expected to a very important fuel
of the twenty-first century, is also obtained in
this manner.
Types of Gasifiers
Downdraft Gasifier
 Types of Gasifiers
Crossdraft gas producers
Gasification of char
 Liquefaction
 Liquefaction of gases includes a number of
phases used to convert a gas into a liquid
state.
 Many gases can be put into a liquid state at
normal atmospheric pressure by simple
cooling; a few, such as carbon dioxide, require
pressurization as well.
 gas is liquefied in the condenser, where the
heat of vaporization is released
 Biochemical conversion: Anaerobic
digestion
• Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in
which microorganisms break down
biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen
.[1] It is used for industrial or domestic purposes
to manage waste and/or to release energy.
• Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a source of
renewable energy. The process produces a
biogas, consisting of methane, carbon dioxide
and traces of other ‘contaminant’ gases
 Anaerobic digestion
• The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis
of the input materials to break down insoluble
organic polymers, such as carbohydrates, and make
them available for other bacteria.
• Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and
amino acids into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia
, and organic acids.
• Acetogenic bacteria then convert these resulting
organic acids into acetic acid, along with additional
ammonia, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.
• Finally, methanogens convert these products to
methane and carbon dioxide.
 Anaerobic digestion
• It is used as part of the process to treat
biodegradable waste and sewage sludge.
• As part of an integrated waste management
system, anaerobic digestion reduces the
emission of landfill gas into the atmosphere.
• Anaerobic digesters can also be fed with
purpose-grown energy crops, such as maize.
 Biogas
• Biogas can be used directly as cooking fuel, in
combined heat and power gas engines or upgraded to
natural gas-quality biomethane.
• The use of biogas as a fuel helps to replace fossil fuels.
• The nutrient-rich digestate also produced can be used
as fertilizer.
• The technical expertise required to maintain
industrial-scale anaerobic digesters, coupled with high
capital costs and low process efficiencies, had limited
the level of its industrial application as a waste
treatment technology.
Stages of anaerobic digestion
 Anaerobic Digestion (Organic Waste)

a) Inlet tank for feedstock. b) Digester tank. c) Effluent tank. d) Effluent storage tank. e)
Effluent pump. f) Gasholder drum. The drum is stabilized by a guide pole in the middle
and is floating in a water jacket outside the digester. g) Biogas pipe. h) Gas Scrubber. i)
Biogas generator j) Drainage connection for excess effluent
Alcohol production from biomass
Basic Steps in Ethanol Production From
Farm Products.
 Production of Ethanol from Corn

1litre of ethanol = 800grams of distillers’ grains

Distillers’ grain has a heating value of 6 to 20 MJ/kg

Bulk density ≈ 400kg m-3

 Wet and dry distillers grains

• There are two common types of distillers grains.

• Wet Distillers Grains (WDG) contain primarily unfermented
grain residues (protein, fibre, fat and up to 70% moisture.
• WDG has a shelf life of four to five days.
• Due to the water content, WDG transport is usually
economically viable within 200 km of the ethanol production
facility.
• Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS) is WDG that has
been dried with the concentrated thin stillage to 10-12 per
cent moisture.
• DDGS have an almost indefinite shelf life and may be shipped
to any market regardless of its proximity to an ethanol plant.
• Drying is costly, as it requires further energy input.
 Production

• In beer or whiskey production grains such as corn are ground to

a coarse consistency and added to hot water.
• After cooling, yeast is added and the mixture ferments for
several days to one week.
• The solids remaining after fermentation are the distillers grains.
• The conversion rate of grains to ethanol and distillers grains
varies with the different types of grains and the process used.
The details are outlined below:
• The conversion rate of corn to distillers grains is: One tonne of
corn produces 378 L of ethanol and 479 kg WDG (70% moisture
content), or 309 kg of DDGS (10% moisture content).
• The conversion rate of wheat to distillers grains is: one tonne of
wheat produces 372 L of ethanol and 457 kg WDG (70%
moisture content), or 295 kg of DDGS (10% moisture content).
 Options for Distillers’ Grains----Distillers
Grains are a cereal byproduct of the distillation process.

Heat of Pyrolysis provided by combustible gas

Ethanol Pure Ethanol

Production

CO2
Distillers’ Grains Pyrolysis

Sequestration of Biochar
 Ethanol production
 Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant
by photosynthesis.
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
 During ethanol fermentation, glucose is
decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CH2OH+ 2 CO2 + heat
 During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen
to produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat:
CH3CH2OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + heat
 Ethanol
• Ethanol can either be produced from carbon
containing gases such as ethylene, acetylene and
carbon monoxide derived mainly from various
fossil fuels or from carbohydrates (sugars, starches,
cellulose) found in various plants.
• Sugars can be fermented directly to ethanol, while
complex carbohydrates (starches and cellulose)
must be broken down first to simple sugars before
the yeast (microorganisms that produce the
fermentation enzymes) can do its work
 Ethanol From Sugar Crops
 The simplest method of producing ethanol is
fermentation and distillation of sugar beets,
sugar cane, molasses and fruits.
 These crops contain high amounts of sugar
which can be converted directly to alcohol by
various yeast enzymes produced by such
microorganisms as Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and Xymomonas mobilis.
 Large scale production of ethanol
The basic steps for large scale production of ethanol are:
 microbial (yeast) fermentation of sugars,
 distillation,
 dehydration , and
 denaturing (optional).
 Prior to fermentation, some crops require
saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as
cellulose and starch into sugars.
 Saccharification of cellulose is called cellulolysis.
Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.
 Ethanol Production process
• Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of the
sugar.
• Microbial fermentation will currently only work directly
with sugars.
• Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose,
are both made up of sugars, and can in principle be
converted to sugars for fermentation.
• Currently, only the sugar (e.g. sugar cane) and starch
(e.g. corn) portions can be economically converted.
• There is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol,
where the cellulose part of a plant is broken down to
sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol.
 Distillation

• For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, the majority

of the water must be removed.
• Most of the water is removed by distillation, but the
purity is limited to 95-96% due to the formation of a
low-boiling water-ethanol azeotrope with maximum
(95.6% m/m (96.5% v/v) ethanol and 4.4% m/m
(3.5% v/v) water).
• This mixture is called hydrous ethanol and can be
used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol,
hydrous ethanol is not miscible in all ratios with
gasoline, so the water fraction is typically removed
in further treatment in order to burn in combination
with gasoline in gasoline engines.
 Dehydration
• There are basically five dehydration processes to remove the water
from an azeotropic ethanol/water mixture.
• The first process, used in many early fuel ethanol plants, is called
azeotropic distillation and consists of adding benzene or
cyclohexane to the mixture.
• When these components are added to the mixture, it forms a
heterogeneous azeotropic mixture in vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium
, which when distilled produces anhydrous ethanol in the column
bottom, and a vapor mixture of water and cyclohexane/benzene.
• When condensed, this becomes a two-phase liquid mixture.
• Another early method, called extractive distillation, consists of
adding a ternary component which will increase ethanol's relative
volatility.
• When the ternary mixture is distilled, it will produce anhydrous
ethanol on the top stream of the column.
 Methanol fuel
• Methanol is an alternative fuel for internal
combustion and other engines, either in
combination with gasoline or directly ("neat").
• It is used in racing cars and in China.
• In general, ethanol is less toxic and has higher
energy density, although methanol is less
expensive to produce sustainably.
• Methanol may be made from fossil or
renewable resources, in particular natural gas
and biomass respectively.
 Methanol production
• Methanol was first produced by destructive
distillation (pyrolysis) of wood, resulting in its
common English name of wood alcohol.
• At present, methanol is usually produced using
methane (the chief constituent of natural gas) as a
raw material.
• In China, methanol is made for fuel from coal.
• "Biomethanol" may be produced by gasification of
organic materials to synthesis gas followed by
conventional methanol synthesis.
• This route can offer methanol production from
biomass at efficiencies up to 75%
 Cellulose
• Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n, a
polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten
thousand β(1→4) linked D-glucose units.
• Cellulose is the structural component of the primary cell wall of
green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes.
• Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most
common organic compound on Earth. About 33% of all plant matter is
cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton is 90% and that of wood is 40–
50%).
• For industrial use, cellulose is mainly obtained from wood pulp and
cotton.
• It is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper; to a smaller extent it
is converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane
and rayon.
• Converting cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as
cellulosic ethanol is under investigation as an alternative fuel source.
Plant cell showing primary and secondary wall
 Hydrolysis
• Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction during which
molecules of water (H2O) are split into hydrogen
cations (H+, conventionally referred to as protons)
and hydroxide anions (OH−) in the process of a
chemical mechanism.
• It is the type of reaction that is used to break
down certain polymers, especially those made by
condensation polymerization.
• Such polymer degradation is usually catalysed by
either acid, e.g., concentrated sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), or alkali, e.g., sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
 Cellulolytic processes
The cellulose molecules are composed of long chains of sugar molecules.
In the hydrolysis process, these chains are broken down to free the sugar,
before it is fermented for alcohol production.
There are two major cellulose hydrolysis (cellulolysis) processes: a
chemical reaction using acids, or an enzymatic reaction.
Chemical hydrolysis

•Hydrolysis is performed by attacking the cellulose with an acid.

•Dilute acid may be used under high heat and high pressure, or more
concentrated acid can be used at lower temperatures and atmospheric
pressure.

•A decrystalized cellulosic mixture of acid and sugars reacts in the

presence of water to complete individual sugar molecules (hydrolysis).
•The product from this hydrolysis is then neutralized and yeast
fermentation is used to produce ethanol.
 Enzymatic hydrolysis

• Cellulose chains can be broken into glucose molecules by

cellulase enzymes.
• lignocellulosic materials can be enzymatically hydrolyzed at
a relatively mild condition (50 °C and pH5), thus enabling
effective cellulose breakdown without the formation of
byproducts that would otherwise inhibit enzyme activity.
• All major pretreatment methods, including dilute acid
pretreatment, require an enzymatic hydrolysis step to
achieve high sugar yield for ethanol fermentation.
• The fungus Trichoderma reesei is used by Iogen Corporation,
to secrete "specially engineered enzymes" for an enzymatic
hydrolysis process.
• Their raw material (wood or straw) has to be pre-treated to
make it amenable to hydrolysis.
 Enzymes
• Enzymes are proteins that catalyze (i.e.,
increase the rates of) chemical reactions.
• In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the
beginning of the process, called substrates,
are converted into different molecules, called
products.
 Ethanol fermentation
• Ethanol fermentation, also referred to as alcoholic
fermentation, is a biological process in which sugars
such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted
into cellular energy and thereby produce ethanol and
carbon dioxide as metabolic waste products.
• Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence
of oxygen, ethanol fermentation is classified as
anaerobic.
• Ethanol fermentation occurs in the production of
alcoholic beverages and ethanol fuel, and in the rising
of bread dough.
 What Is Hydrogenated Oil?
• Oils have been hydrogenated for many decades, to prolong
their shelf life and make the oils more stable.
• Hydrogenated oil is oil in which the essential fatty acids have
been converted to a different form chemically, which has
several effects.
• Hydrogenated oil is far more shelf stable.
• It also has a higher melting point, and is often used in frying
and pastries for this reason.
• When hydrogenated, the chemical structure of the oil is
changed.
• Hydrogenated oil is made by forcing hydrogen gas into oil at
high pressure.
• Both animal and vegetable fats can be and are hydrogenated. In
general, the more solid the oil is, the more hydrogenated it is.
 Hydrogenation

• Hydrogenation, to treat with hydrogen, also a form of

chemical reduction, is a chemical reaction between
molecular hydrogen (H2) and another compound or
element, usually in the presence of a catalyst.
• The process is commonly employed to reduce or
saturate organic compounds.
• Hydrogenation typically constitutes the addition of
pairs of hydrogen atoms to a molecule, generally an
alkene.
• Catalysts are required for the reaction to be usable;
non-catalytic hydrogenation takes place only at very
high temperatures.
 Hydrogenation

• Hydrogenation is widely applied to the

processing of vegetable oils and fats.
• Complete hydrogenation converts unsaturated
fatty acids to saturated ones.
• Hydrogenation results in the conversion of
liquid vegetable oils to solid or semi-solid fats.
• Solid or semi-solid fats are preferred for baking
because the way the fat mixes with flour
produces a more desirable texture in the baked
product.
 Hydrogenation Reaction

• Unsaturated fatty acids may be converted to

saturated fatty acids by the relatively simple
hydrogenation reaction.
• Recall that the addition of hydrogen to an
alkene (unsaturated) results in an alkane
(saturated).
• A simple hydrogenation reaction is
H2C=CH2 + H2 ---> CH3CH3
alkene plus hydrogen yields an alkane
• Fatty acids are merely carboxylic acids with
long hydrocarbon chains.
 fatty acids
• Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more
double bonds between carbon atoms. E.g Oleic acid
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
• (Pairs of carbon atoms connected by double bonds
can be saturated by adding hydrogen atoms to
them, converting the double bonds to single bonds.
Therefore, the double bonds are called
unsaturated.)
• Saturated fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic acids
that usually have between 12 and 24 carbon atoms
and have no double bonds. E.g Stearic acid
CH3(CH2)16COOH
 What is an anaerobic digester?—Biogas production
• Air tight, oxygen free container, usually concrete.
• Continues the digestion process of organic
materials such as animal manure and food
wastes
• Biogas is produced (60% methane & 40% carbon
dioxide)
• Heated to maintain optimum temperature 99oF
or 135oF
• Biogas can be used to run an engine generator
set creating electricity and waste heat
 Bioenergy System with Liquid and Solid Feeding –
Biogas production

f Feeding in
gas grid
Vehicle
fuel

Agricultural residues
e
(manure, slurry) r
m Biogas upgrading
e
n
t
Energy crops, grass a Biogas
cleaning
Biogas
utilisatio
Direct
burnin
from Landscape
maintenance (grass, t n
g
maize, beets)
i
o Cogeneration
n

Electrical Therma
Transport Storage l
energy
energy

Spreading Separation

liquid components back to the

Gardening solid components liquid components back to the
Agriculture solid components fermentation or spreading
Agriculture Gardening become compost fermentation or spreading
become compost
 Solid Biomass Charging –Biogas production
• U. T. S. Professional
• solids charging for daily rations from 10 – 50
tons/day
 Liquid Biomass Feeding

Digestor Biomass storage

Feedstock
• cabbage
• potatoes
lactic acid • beets
Preservation at pH4 • grain
• maize

continuous
liquid feeding

substrate preperation with up

to 20 % - 30 % water
Designed with a flat flexible cover to
prevent wind damage. DIGESTOR
This plug flow digester is designed with an offal pit for additional feedstock to boost methane production.
 Biogas production

• From the
decomposition of
wastes in farming
sewage treatment
• A bi-product of the
cleaning up of
waste water
• Biogas consists of
about 40% CO2 and
60% CH4
BEA Dithmarschen
 Requirements
• a fermenter, which is supplied with an innoculum
of bacteria (methanogens and decomposers)
• anaerobic conditions
• an optimum temperature of 35°C
• an optimum pH of 6.5 to 8
This needs to be monitored as the decomposers
produce acids and they work faster than the
methanogens consume the acids
• organic waste (biomass) e.g. sewage, wood pulp
• Methanogens are bacteria that produce methane
gas
 Gobar gas
• Gobar gas production is an anaerobic
process

• Fermentation is carried out in an air tight,

closed cylindrical concrete tank called a
digester
• Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a
fertilizer and soil amendment.
• Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming.
• At its most essential, the process of composting requires simply piling up
waste outdoors and waiting for the materials to break down from anywhere
between 5-6 weeks or even more.
• The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding
water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture.
• Worms and fungi further break up the material.
• Aerobic bacteria manage the chemical process by converting the inputs into
heat, carbon dioxide and ammonium.
• The ammonium is further converted by bacteria into plant-nourishing
nitrites and nitrates through the process of nitrification.
• Compost can be rich in nutrients. It is used in gardens, landscaping,
horticulture, and agriculture.
• The compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, including as a
soil conditioner, a fertilizer, addition of vital humus or humic acids, and as a
natural pesticide for soil.
Compost

Compost
Fixed Dome Digester
• Fixed Dome Digester ---
• This type of digester has a gas-collecting dome that is fixed.
• The digester is normally constructed using bricks and mortar and
ends with a solid fixed dome in the shape of an igloo.
• Although this is the most well known digester design and the
most widely used, it has a number of inherent disadvantages.
• The main disadvantage is the fact that it can only ever produce gas
of variable pressure.
• As the biogas is generated it rises and accumulates in the brick
dome from where it is piped to point of use.
• The volume and rate of gas production is dependent on the type
and frequency of material fed into the digester as well as on the
temperature.
• This means that the amount and pressure of gas available will
continuously vary, making it less efficient to run any type of biogas
equipment such as gas water heaters, lights and generators.
 Fixed Dome Digester
• The second disadvantage is related to the actual construction
of the digester which requires a very high level of skilled labour.
• Constructing a dome using bricks and mortar is a task suitable
only to a very experienced brick layer and is also time
consuming.
• A critical aspect of a digester is that it has to be constructed
and sealed in such a way that it is airtight - any crack in the
structure will allow the biogas to escape.
• History has shown that this aspect has been the biggest cause
of failure of fixed dome digesters due to the development of
cracks as the cement cures and/or as a result of differential
settlement of the structure.
• More than 50% of this type of digester has a functional life
span of more than 3 years.
 Biodegradation

• Biodegradation or biotic degradation or biotic

decomposition is the chemical dissolution of
materials by bacteria or other biological means.
• Organic material can be degraded aerobically
with oxygen, or anaerobically, without oxygen.
• Biodegradable matter is generally
organic material such as plant and animal
matter and other substances originating from
living organisms, or artificial materials that are
similar enough to plant and animal matter to be
put to use by microorganisms.
 Aerobic organism
• An aerobic organism or aerobe is an organism that
can survive and grow in an oxygenated
environment.
• Almost all animals, most fungi, and several bacteria
are obligate aerobes, which require oxygen.
• Most anaerobic organisms are bacteria.
• Yeast is an example of a facultative anaerobe, which
can develop in the presence of oxygen but does not
require it.
• Individual human cells are also facultative
anaerobes
 Anaerobic digestion

• Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in

which microorganisms break down
biodegradable material in the absence of
oxygen.
• It is used for industrial or domestic purposes to
manage waste and/or to release energy.
• The digestion process begins with bacterial
hydrolysis of the input materials to break down
insoluble organic polymers, such as
carbohydrates, and make them available for
other bacteria.
 Bacteria
• Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars
and amino acids into carbon dioxide, hydrogen
, ammonia, and organic acids.
• Acetogenic bacteria then convert these
resulting organic acids into acetic acid, along
with additional ammonia, hydrogen, and
carbon dioxide.
• Finally, methanogens convert these products
to methane and carbon dioxide.
 Anaerobic digestion

• It is used as part of the process to treat

biodegradable waste and sewage sludge.

• As part of an integrated waste management

system, anaerobic digestion reduces the
emission of landfill gas into the atmosphere.

• Anaerobic digesters can also be fed with

purpose-grown energy crops, such as maize.
 Anaerobic digestion
• Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a source of
renewable energy.
• The process produces a biogas, consisting of methane,
carbon dioxide and traces of other ‘contaminant’
gases.
• This biogas can be used directly as cooking fuel, in
combined heat and power gas engines or upgraded to
natural gas-quality biomethane.
• The use of biogas as a fuel helps to replace fossil fuels.
• The nutrient-rich digestate also produced can be used
as fertilizer.
Yellow slime mold growing on a bin of wet
paper
 Methods of measuring biodegradation
• In nature, different materials biodegrade at different rates.
• To be able to work effectively, most microorganisms that assist the
biodegradation need light, water and oxygen.
• Temperature is also an important factor in determining the rate of
biodegradation.
• This is because microorganisms tend to reproduce faster in
warmer conditions.
• Scientists often use respirometry tests for aerobic microbes.
• First one places a solid waste sample in a container with
microorganisms and soil, and then aerate the mixture.
• Over the course of several days, microorganisms digest the
sample bit by bit and produce carbon dioxide – the resulting
amount of CO2 serves as an indicator of degradation.
• Biodegradation can also be measured by anaerobic microbes and
the amount of methane or alloy that they are able to produce.
 Approximated time for compounds to
biodegrade
Product Time to Biodegrade

Vegetables 5 days - 1 month

Orange peels 6 months

General paper 2–5 months

Paper towel 2–4 weeks

Cardboard box 2 months

Cotton t shirts 6 months

Tree leaves 6–9 months

 Biodegradable waste

• Biodegradable waste is a type of waste, typically

originating from plant or animal sources, which
may be degraded by other living organisms.
• Waste that cannot be broken down by other living
organisms are called non-biodegradable.
• Biodegradable waste can be commonly found in
municipal solid waste (sometimes called
biodegradable municipal waste, or BMW) as
green waste, food waste, paper waste, and
biodegradable plastics.
• Other biodegradable wastes include human waste,
manure, sewage, slaughterhouse waste.
• In the absence of oxygen much of this waste will
decay to methane by anaerobic digestion.
 Uses of biodegradable waste

• Biodegradable waste can often be used for

composting or a resource for heat, electricity
and fuel.

• This produces additional Biogas and still

delivers the compost for the soil.
 WHAT IS BIODEGRADABLE?
• I would define it as being able to be broken down by
natural processes, into more basic components.
• Products are usually broken down by bacteria, fungi or
other simple organisms.
• By this definition, most chemicals are biodegradable; the
only thing differing would be the amount of time it takes
to break down.
• A piece of bread will break down rather quickly, whereas
a piece of plastic will take decades and beyond.
• The ideal final products of any complex product of
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen would be Carbon
Dioxide(CO2) and Water (H2O).
• The previously mentioned piece of bread is made mostly
of these, and after breaking down from complex sugars to
simpler sugars, will eventually degrade to CO2 and H2O.
 Substrate

• Substrate (biology), the natural environment

in which an organism lives, or the surface or
medium on which an organism grows or is
attached
 What is a biological pathway?

 A biological pathway is a series of actions

among molecules in a cell that leads to a
certain product or a change in a cell.
 Such a pathway can trigger the assembly of
new molecules, such as a fat or protein.
 Pathways can also turn genes on and off, or
spur a cell to move.
 Biological pathway
 A biological pathway is a number of
biochemical steps, linked together, with a
start and an end.
 The activity within a pathway should is a flow
of molecules.[