Radio-frequency circuit

---Oscillator
 The quality standard of oscillator
The frequency stability of any LC oscillator depends on that
of its resonant circuit, including any stray or device reactance
that may be present.

Even with careful design, LC oscillator are subject to frequency

Change from such diverse sources as voltage variations,
changes in load impedance, temperature changes, and
mechanical vibration. All these problems can be reduced,
but only at great expense.
 The quality standard of oscillator (time domain)

Absolute frequency error: f  f N  f

f f  fN
relative frequency error: 
fN fN
The relative error of the frequency statistical sense
2
 f  1 n   f  f 
   lim      Mean square error
 fN  n n i 1   f N  i f N 

Frequency stability:
2
f 1 n   f  f 
fN
t  lim
n 
   
n i 1  f N i

f N 
t
The quality standard of oscillator (frequency domain)

Phase noise Harmonic distortion

o  o 
10kHz
 Clapp oscillator

The Clapp oscillator is a variation of the Colpitts circuit,

designed to swamp device capacitances for greater stability.

o 1  C L 
   
 

o 2 C L   
 Cce

C1 Ccb
Cce
L Ccb
C2 Cbe

返回 Cbe
 Clapp oscillator
The Clapp oscillator is a variation of the Colpitts circuit,
designed to swamp device capacitances for greater stability.

vo A vo
A
C2 U o C2
1
Uo fo 
2 LCT

U f C1 C3 CT 
1 U f C1 C1
1 1 1
 
C1 C2 C3

CT  C3
Using noninverting amplifier Using inverting amplifier
example Calculate the feedback fraction and oscillating frequency of
the circuit in Figure 2.22
Vcc
Solution:
1 1
RFC
CT    9.01pF
RB1 1 1 1 1 1 1
   
100  h C1 C2 C3 100 1000 10

1
fo 
2 LCT
C2
L1
RB 2 100 pF
1 H 1

2  110   9.0110 
6 12

C3 C1
10 pF 1000 pF  53.02MHz
example Calculate the feedback fraction and oscillating frequency of
the circuit in Figure 2.22
Vcc
Solution: 1
Uf j C2 C
B   1
RFC Uo 1 C2
RB1
100  h jC1

Uo
C2
L1
RB 2 100 pF
1 H

C3 Uf
C1
10 pF 1000 pF
 Varactor-tuned Oscillators

The frequency of an LC oscillator can be changed by varying,

tuning, either the inductive or the capacitive element in a
tuned circuit.

1
fo 
2 LC Two sets of plates
Ferrite core
Slug tuning

Mechanical tuning
 Varactor

Varactor is a reverse-biased silicon diode.

As the reverse voltage increases, so does the width of the
diode’s depletion layer. As a result, the junction capacitance
Decreases.
If this junction capacitance is made part of a resonant circuit,
that circuit can be tuned by varying the dc voltage on the
varactor.
It is well adapted to remote or automatic control.

V oltage-ControlledOscillator VCO
Non-inverting Colpitts Oscillator

Non-inverting Clapp Oscillator

A vo

C1

C4
R
C2
C3
 Varactor

The variation of capacitance with voltage is not linear for

a varactor.
C j0 C j0
Cj  5 V  12V
1  2V Cj
where C j Capacitance at reverse voltage V
C j 0 Capacitance with no reverse voltage
Cj

For relatively large reverse-bias voltage:

The capacitance is approximately inversely
Proportional to the square root of the applied
voltage.

The minimum capacitance will be limited by

the breakdown voltage of the diode.
u
Example a varactor has a maximum capacitance of 80 pF and is used in
a tuned circuit with a 100 uH inductor.
(a) find the resonant frequency with no tuning voltage applied.
(b) find the tuning voltage necessary for the circuit to resonant at double
the frequency found in part(a)

Solution
(a) The resonant frequency can be calculated from equation:

1
fo 
2 LC
1

2  100 10   80 10 
6 12

 1.78MHz
 Example a varactor has a maximum capacitance of 80 pF and is used in
a tuned circuit with a 100 uH inductor.
(a) find the resonant frequency with no tuning voltage applied.
(b) find the tuning voltage necessary for the circuit to resonant at double
the frequency found in part(a)

Solution
(b) The resonant frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of capacitance

1 1 1
fo   f  2
2
C 2 2
4 f o L
o
2 LC 4 LC  C  20 pF
f o  1.78MHz
Now we can find the required tuning voltage from the following equation:

 C   1  2V 
C j0 C j0 
Cj  C  1  2V j0 16  1  2V
1  2V  Cj 

j
V  7.5
 Crystal-control Oscillators
Crystal oscillator achieve greater stability by using a small
slab of quartz as a mechanical resonator, in place of an LC
tuned circuit.
Piezoelectric material
Deforming it mechanically causes the crystal to generate
a voltage, and applying a voltage to the crystal causes it to
deform.

Rigid body Mechanical resonant frequency

 Crystal-control Oscillators

Qq Very high

Lq Very large
Co
Very small Cq Very small
Co  Cq
rq Very small

(a)Symbol for a quartz crystal (b)Equivalent circuit for a crystal

 1
Lq Series: s 
Co Lq Cq
Cq
C q  C0
rq parallel p 
: Lq Cq C0

s   p
s ,  p in close proximity
 Crystal oscillators offer great accuracy and stability at the
Price of fixed frequency operation.

Xe

inductive
High Q! parallel
series Short circuit line

O s p

capacitive capacitive

Variation of crystal reactance with frequency

 Crystal-control Oscillators
Crystal oscillator offer great accuracy and stability at the price
Of fixed frequency operation.

The operating frequency can be accurate within a few parts

per million (ppm) at the reference temperature at which the
crystal is calibrated.

The stability over a typical range of operating temperatures

varies with the design of the crystal and the oscillator.

When greater stability is required, temperature compensation

can be used.
 Crystal-control Oscillators
When greater stability is required, temperature compensation
can be used.

thermistor

Sense temperature variation

Variable capacitance across the crystal-----varactor

microprocessor

Look-up table that relates required varactor voltage to temperature

 Crystal-control Oscillators
The temperature dependence of the frequency of an oscillator
can be given by:

fT  f 0  kf 0  T  T0 

where fT  Operating frequency at temperature T

f 0  Operating frequency at temperature T0
k  Temperature coefficient per degree
 Example a portable radio transmitter has to operate at temperature
from -5oC to 35oC . If its signal is derived from a crystal oscillator with
a temperature coefficient of +1 ppm/degree C and it transmits at exactly
146MHz at 20oC, find the transmitting frequency at the two extremes of the
operating temperature range.

Solution
The frequency at a temperature 35oC will be:

1106

fT  f 0  kf 0  T  T0 

146 20
The frequency at the lower temperature limit will be:

-5
 VDD

RD

CD

C1
RG
C2
RFC

(a) colpitts
Crystal oscillator circuits
 RFC CD

C1
RG C2

(a) pierce
Crystal oscillator circuits