RESERVOIR ENGINEERING ASPECTS

RELATE TO WELL LOGGING

Seven Key Elements of
Petroleum Reservoir

1. Source Rock
0
2. Reservoir Rock
1000
3. Timing / Burial 1 0. 2 m
History 2000 Y
3000
4. Maturation
4000
5. Migration
5000 HIGH
6. Cap Rock PRESSURE
6000
7. Trap
7000
10 km
8000

9000

10000
Geology Structural Products

Fold

Fault

Fracture
Structural Reservoir Trap
Structural Reservoir Trap
Structural Reservoir Trap - Anticline
Structural Reservoir Trap - Fault

Fault Leaked
Fault Sealed

Ilustration of HC accumulation on Hanging wall of Normal Fault

Stratigraphyc Trap

Pinch out Channel

Standard Scientific Units

Parameter Symbol Dimensions cgs SI Darcy Field

Length L L cm metre cm ft
Mass m M gm kg gm lb
Time t T sec Sec sec hr
Velocity u L/T cm/sec metre/sec cm/sec ft/sec
stb/d
(liquid)
Rate q L3 /T cc/sec metre3 /sec cc/Sec
Mscf/d
(gas)
Pressure p (ML/T2 )/L2 dyne/cm2 Newton/metre2 atm psia
(Pascal)
Density  M/L3 gm/cc kg/metre3 gm/cc lb/cu.ft
Viscosity  M/LT gm/cm.sec kg/metre.sec cp cp
(Poise)
Permeability k L2 cm2 metre2 Darcy mD
Common Conversion Factors

1 ft = 0.3048 m 1 acre = 4047 m2 = 43560 ft2

1 bbl = 0.159 m3 1 acre-ft = 1233 m3

1 dyne = 10-5 N 1 atm = 101.3 kPa

1 psi = 6.9 kPa 1 cal = 4.817 J

1 Btu = 1055 J 1 HP = 746 W

1 cp = 0.001 Pa s 1 md = 10-15 m2

1 lb = 0.454 kg 1 bar = 100 kPa

Properties of the Reservoir Rocks
 Properties of the rock material:
- Porosity
- Pore size distribution
- Permeability
- Formation compressibility
 Static rock-fluid properties (related to interaction of rock &
fluids contained in pores):
- Wettability & contact angle
- Capillary pressure & interfacial tension
- Irreducible & connate water saturation
- Residual oil saturation
 Dynamic rock-fluid properties (related to the interaction of rock
& fluids):
- Relative permeability
- Mobility
- Saturation distribution during fluid displacement
Properties of the Rock Material
Porosity

Original or primary porosity - forms when rock

forming sediment was originally deposited,
compacted, & cemented together into matrix

Induced or secondary porosity - developed by

geological process that occurred after deposition

Total porosity - total void space in rock divided by

bulk volume of rock

Effective porosity - ratio of interconnected void

space in rock to bulk volume of rock
Properties of the Rock Material
Porosity

Void Volume
Porosity   
Bulk Volume

Interconnected Pore Volume

Effective Porosity   e 
Bulk Volume

Total Pore Volume

Total Porosity   T 
Bulk Volume

Bulk Volume  Rock Volume occupied by solid grains

 Void volume beween cemented grains
Factor Affecting Porosity
Porosity is affected by
- Sorting (well sorted means grains are all of
roughly uniform size)
- Roundness or angularity
- Compaction
- Contribution of secondary porosity i.e., vugs or
fractures
- Type of packing and cementation.
Porosity Oil Quartz Grain

= 0.08 mm
Notes on Porosity
Porosity is a measure of the storage capacity of
the reservoir rock.
Only interconnected pore space is of interest. If
pore space is isolated, i.e., there is no network of
pores that channel fluids to wells, fluid can not be
produced.
Effect of Pore Packing

Cubic
(Porosity 47,6%)

Rhombohedral
(Porosity 25,96%)
Porosity Case Example - 1

Data :
Bulk volume (Vb), cc = 100
Solid volume (Vs), cc = 75
Interconnected pore volume (Vpef) = 50% Vp

Determine :
1. Total pore volume (Vp)
2. Interconnected Pore volume (Vpef)
3. Total Porosity ()
4. Effective Porosity (ef)
Solution Porosity Case - 1

1. Vp = Vb – Vs
= (100 – 75) cc
= 25 cc
2. Vpef = 50 % x 25 cc
= 12.5 cc
3. 4.
25 eff 
12.5
 100%
  100%
100
100
  25% eff  12.5%
Porosity Case Example - 2

Data :
Bulk volume total (Vb), cc = 1250
Solid volume total (Vs), cc = 983
Interconnected pore volume (Vpef) = 43% Vp

Determine :
1. Total pore volume (Vp)
2. Interconnected pore volume (Vpef)
3. Total porosity ()
4. Effective porosity (ef)
Solution Porosity Case - 2

1. Vp = Vb – Vs
= (1250 – 983) cc
= 267 cc
2. Vpef = 0,43 x 267 cc
= 114,81 cc
3. 4. 114,81
267 eff   100%
  100%
1250 1250
  21,36% eff  9,1848%
 Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcy’s Equation

Darcy’s equation for horizontal linear flow of fluid

through a porous media:

Q Where:
q = volumetric rate (cm3/sec)

k  A p 1  p 2 
k = permeability (darcies)
q  A = area (cm2)
μ L A p2

m = viscosity (cp)
L
p p1 = upstream pressure (atm)
p1
Q p2 = downstream pressure (atm)

qμL L = length of porous media (cm)

k
A p1  p2 
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcy’s Equation
A sand of one Darcy permeability will permit a fluid
of one centipoise viscosity to flow through an area
of one cm2 at a flow rate of one cubic centimeter
per second under a pressure gradient of one
atmosphere per centimeter
- Usually a Darcy is much too large a unit for
reservoir rocks normally encountered in the field,
so a millidarcy, or one-thousandth of a Darcy, is
the customary unit
1000 md = 1 D
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcy’s Equation
In oilfield units, Darcy’s equation for the horizontal flow
of a liquid can be expressed as:

1.1271x103  k  A   p1  p2 
q
μ L
Where:
q = volumetric flow rate of liquid (bbl/day)
k = permeability (md)
A = flow area (ft2)
p1 = upstream pressure (psi)
p2 = downstream pressure (psi)
 = fluid viscosity (cp)
L = thickness of porous media (ft)
Properties of the Rock Material
Absolute and Effective Permeability
 Permeability
- Property of the rock & not of the fluid which flows
through it, provided that the fluid 100% saturates the
pore space of the rock
 Absolute permeability
- Permeability at 100% saturation of a single fluid is
called the of the rock
 Effective permeability
- Permeability of a rock to a particular fluid when that
fluid has a pore saturation less than 100%.
• The sum of the effective permeabilities for different
fluids is always < absolute permeability of the rock
Factor Affecting Permeability

Porosity
Saturation
Fluid flow velocity, Viscosity and
Pressure
Flow Geometry


Flow Geometry for Parallel Layer


j 1
k j hj
k  n

j 1
hj
Flow Geometry for Seri Layer

L
k n Lj
K
j 1 j
Permeability Case - 1

A core has length (L) 2.3 cm, diameter (d) 3.752

cm2, saturated with water (Sw) 100%, pressure
difference (P1 – P2) 0.5 atm, obtaining water
producing rate (Qw) is 52 cc/sec, with the
viscosity of water (w) is 0.01845 cp.

Question :
Determine the absolute permeability of these
core ?
Solution Permeability Case - 1

A = 1/4 x  x d2
= 1/4 x 3.14 x 3.752
= 11.04 cm2

Qw .  w . L
kw 
A . ( P1  P2 )
52 x 0.01845 x 2.3
kw 
11.04 x 0.5
kw  0.39975 Darcy
Average Permeability Case - 2

Data of three layers are as follows :

Layer I : k : 200 mD and thickness 75 ft
Layer II : k : 100 mD and thickness 50 ft
Layer III : k : 150 mD and thickness 100 ft

Question :
Determine the average permeability if the layer is
parallel and seri ?
Solution Average Permeability Case - 2

Parallel Layer
n


j 1
k j hj
k  n

 j 1
hj

k 
 75  200   50 100  100 150
75  50  100

=155,56 mD
Solution Average Permeability Case - 2

Seri Layer

L
k n Lj
K
j 1 j

225
k
75 50 100 = 238,95 mD
 
200 100 150
Average Permeability Case - 3

Data of three layers are as follows :

Layer I : k : 135 mD and thickness 46 ft
Layer II : k : 121 mD and thickness 101 ft
Layer III : k : 109 mD and thickness 72 ft

Question :
Determine the average permeability if the layer is
parallel and seri ?
Solution Average Permeability Case - 3

Parallel Layer
n


j 1
k j hj
k  n

 j 1
hj

k 
 46 135  101121   72 109
46  101  72

=119.99 mD
Solution Average Permeability Case - 3

Seri Layer

L
k n Lj
K
j 1 j

219
k
46 101 72 = 119.255 mD
 
135 121 109
Note for Permeability
Heterogeneities in permeability can have a
dominant effect on secondary recovery and EOR
operations.
- Thin high-permeability sand streaks can cause
water to bypass oil sand and breakthrough
prematurely at production wells during
waterflooding.
Fluid Saturation

 Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore volume

occupied by a given fluid

Saturation 
V specific fluid

V pore space

 Definitions
Sw = water saturation
So = oil saturation
Sg = gas saturation
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg
Fluid Saturation

Amount of water per unit volume =  Sw

Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume =  (1 -
Sw)

(1-Sw)
 Hydrocarbon
Sw Water

 Matrix
Fluid Saturations

Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation

- Initially, pore space filled 100% with water
- Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
- Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces
and gravity
- Connate water saturation remains in
hydrocarbon zone
Fluid Saturation Case - 1

Give the pore volume of the rock material occupied

by oil is 400 cm3, pore volume occupied by gas is
75 cm3, while total pore volume is 500 cm3.

Question :
Determine the saturation for each fluids.
Solution Fluid Saturation Case - 1

400
So   0.8
500
75
Sg   0.15
500
Sg + So + Sw = 1
1 – So – Sg = Sw
1 – 0.8 – 0.15 = 0.05
Hence So = 0.8
Sg = 0.15
Sw = 0.05
Fluid Saturation Case - 2

Give the pore volume of the rock material occupied by oil

is 176 cm3, pore volume occupied by gas is 57 cm3,
while total pore volume 250 cm3.

Question :
Determine the saturation for each fluids.
Solution Fluid Saturation Case - 2

176
So   0.704
250
57
Sw   0.228
250
 Sg + So + Sw = 1
1 – So – Sw = Sg
1 – 0.704 – 0.228 = 0.068
 Hence So = 0.704
Sg = 0.068
Sw = 0.228


Reservoir Heterogeneities
Reservoir heterogeneities which can have impact
on oil recovery:
- Pay discontinuities/pinchouts
- Faults
- Permeability variations/anisotropy
- Porosity variations
- Horizontal fractures
- Vertical fractures
- Vertical flow barriers (shales, etc.)
- Formation dip
Reservoir Heterogeneities
Methods used to detect and quantify areal reservoir
variations:
- Mapping of core data, log data, and well test data
- Detailed lithological studies
- Pressure transient testing:
• Pulse tests
• Interference tests to detect and quantify directional
permeability trends
• Fault or barrier detection
- Environment of deposition:
• Recognition of depositional environment allows one to
infer probable directional changes in grain size, grain
orientation, permeability etc.