FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

AND / OR TUBINGS
Note: The two general equations that govern uniform steady fluid flow in pipes
and / or tubings are the continuity equation and the mechanical energy balance
The Continuity Equation (Simple Mass Balance):

  1A1u1  2 A2 u2
m
The Mechanical Energy Balance:
Reynolds Number and Flow Regimes

Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of inertia

and viscous forces.
Du 
Re 


where D is the pipe diameter, u is the average velocity,  is the fluid density and
µ is the fluid viscosity.
Reynolds Number and Flow Regimes

In case of a non-circular cross-section, D must be replaced by the equivalent

diameter, Deq:

 cros s s e ctional are a 

De q  4rH  4  
 we tte d pe rime te r 

In the preceding equation, rH is called the hydraulic radius

Reynolds Number and Flow Regimes

Pipe flow regimes:

Dependence of pipe flow regime on Re

Reynolds Pressure Gradient

Flow regime is proportional to
number
Laminar Re < 2100 Q
Transition 2100 < Re < Variable
4000
Turbulent Re > 4000 Q1.8 ~ Q2
Laminar flow in pipe

Velocity profile v(r)  

P 2 2
4 L
R r 
Volumetric flow rate (Hagen-Poiseuille equation)

R 4  P1  P2 
Q  
8  L 

D4  P1  P2 
Q  
128   L 
 8 uL
• Frictional dissipation
F 2
R

R 2  dP 
• Maximum velocity (at r = 0) v ma x   
4   dz 

1
u  v  v ma x
• Mean velocity 2
• The Kinetic Energy Term
v2
Kinetic energy per unit mass: KE  
2g c

The kinetic energy correction factor () accounts for the variation of local
velocity due to the influence of solid boundary. The mechanical energy balance
equation therefore, can be written as

P1 u12 g P2 u 22 g
 1  z1  w   2  z2  F
 2g c g c  2g c g c
 P1 u12 g P2 u 2
2 g
 1  z1  w   2  z2  F
 2g c g c  2g c g c

For laminar flow in pipe: 2

For turbulent flow in pipe:   1.02  1.15

For uniform distribution of velocity:  1

Note: u or vis the average velocity and v is a point velocity
Skin Friction and Form Friction
Skin friction
• If any surface is in contact with a fluid and a relative motion exists between
the surface and the fluid, the transfer of momentum results in a tangential
stress or drag on the surface that is oriented parallel to the direction of flow.
This phenomenon is called skin friction.
• Skin friction is generated in unseparated boundary layers; for example, in
straight pipes.
Skin Friction and Form Friction
Form friction
• Whenever a fluid changes path to pass around a solid body set in the flow
path, the fluid accelerates and significant frictional losses consequently occurs
because of acceleration and deceleration of the fluid. This phenomenon is
called form drag or form friction.
• Form friction is an energy dissipation that occurs when boundary layer
separates and form wakes; for example, flow through valves, fittings, and
obstruction such as sudden contraction or enlargement of cross section.
Friction in Pipes
Friction factor
• Friction factor is a dimensionless wall stress defined as the ratio of the wall
stress to the inertial force per unit area that would result from the
impingement of a stream of density  and velocity u normally against a wall.
Friction in Pipes
Friction factor
w
f
Fanning friction factor: 1 u 2
2

w
Darcy friction factor: fD 
1 u 2
8
• Evaluation of friction factor

 
f or fD    Re , 
 D

• where:  roughness of pipe


relative roughness of the pipe
D
Effective surface roughness of some pipe materials
• For laminar flow (Re < 2100)

16
f
Re

64
fM 
Re
• Evaluation of Friction Factor
• The friction factor chart is a log-log plot of f versus Re at different values of
relative roughness. In addition, friction factor can be estimated using
empirical equations as follows:
• Colebrook-White equation

   1.257
f  1.737 ln  0.269  
 D  Re f
Note:
In friction factor chart, the turbulent region is based on the Colebrook-White
equation.
Friction factor for a wide range of Re is given in Figure 6-9 of Perry’s CHE
Handbook, 7th edition
• Explicit form Colebrook-White equation (approximate)

2
   2.185   14.5   
f   1.737 ln  0.269  ln  0.269   
  D Re  D Re  

• Blasius equation (for hydraulically smooth surface; 4000 < Re < 105)

0.079
f
Re 0.25
• Churchill equation (for smooth and rough tubes; Re > 4000)

1    7  
0.9
 4 log 0.27    
f  D  Re  
• Evaluation of Frictional Dissipation (F) in MEB

4fLu 2
• Skin friction (FS) Fs 
2g c D
• Form friction (FF)
• Form friction can be evaluated in terms of loss coefficient, K, which is defined
as the number of velocity heads lost due to fluids passing through valves,
fittings or any obstructions. Alternately, form friction can also be estimated in
terms of the equivalent length of a pipe that has the same effect (i.e. pressure
drop due to friction) as the valve, fitting, or obstruction under in the system
considered.
• Evaluation of form friction by LOSS COEFFICIENT (K) METHOD

u2
FF   K
2g c
• Form friction due to valves and fittings
K values for some fittings and valves are available in Perry’s CHE Handbook. A sample
selection is shown below
Type of fitting or valve Loss coefficient, Kf

45o ell, standard 0.35

45o ell, long radius 0.20
Gate valve  
¼ open 24.0
½ open 4.50
¾ open 0.90
fully open 0.17
• Form friction due to sudden changes in cross section

• Loss coefficient (K) for sudden enlargement and sudden contraction of cross
section
 
Velocity (u) to be
K
used in equation
Sudden  A 
2
Ke   1  1 
Upstream velocity
enlargement of A2 
 (u1)
cross section
Sudden
 A  Downstream
contraction of Kc  0.5  1  2 
A1  velocity (u2)
cross section 
(a) Sudden contraction of cross section; (b)
sudden enlargement of cross section
• Total frictional dissipation (or total friction loss)

F  Fs   FF

2
 L  u
F   4f  Ke  Kc   Kf 
 D  2g c
• Evaluation of form friction by EQUIVALENT LENGTH (Le) METHOD

4fFLTu 2
F
2g c D

LT  Ls   Le

• where Le is the equivalent length of valve or fitting, LS is the total length of

straight pipes, and LT is the total equivalent length of pipes and fittings.
• For a specific pipe fitting or valve, there is a corresponding Le/D. A sample
selection is shown in the following table below

Type of fitting Le/D

Angle valve (open) 160
Gate valve (open) 6.5
Square 90o elbow 70
Sudden contraction, 4:1 15
Sudden contraction, 2:1 11
Sudden enlargement, 1:4 30
Sudden enlargement, 1:2 20
• The relation ship between K and Le is given by the following equation:

Le
K  4f
D
Solution of Simple Piping Problems
(INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW)
For incompressible fluid flow, the density of the fluid is constant. Liquids
flowing isothermally are considered to be incompressible.
Known variables:
• change in elevation (z = z2 – z1)
• pipe length (L)
• material of construction of pipe (i.e. roughness)
• density and viscosity of the fluid (, µ)
Solution of Simple Piping Problems
(INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW)

•  
• Additional variable of prime importance:
• volumetric flow rate (Q)
• internal diameter of the pipe (D)
• pressure drop (-P = P1 – P2)
• CASE 1: Known flow rate and diameter, unknown pressure drop

• Compute the mean velocity, Reynolds number, and the relative roughness.
• Determine friction factor (fF): fF = f(Re, /D). Use either the plot or the
appropriate formula to determine fF.
• Evaluate other friction losses, if any.
• Use MEB to compute pressure drop.
For density and viscosity of water
• Water flowing at a rate of 80 gpm through 50 ft of an annular conduit made of
½ -in and 1¼-in schedule 40 steel pipes. What is the pressure drop (in psi)
within the line? Assume, as average properties, a density of 62.3 lb/ft3 and a
viscosity of 0.88 cP.
  cros s s e ctional are a 
De q  4rH  4  
 we tte d pe rime te r 
 Du 
Re 

1    7  
0.9
 4 log 0.27    
f  D  Re  
CASE 2: Known diameter and pressure drop, unknown flow rate

• Compute /D.
• Assume Reynolds number. (Start with either 10,000 or 100,000).
• Evaluate fF.
• Compute mean velocity from MEB.
• Check Reynolds number. If different from the last Reynolds number assumed, use this new
Reynolds number to determine fF as in 3. Repeat this procedure until convergence (Re old =
Renew or uold = unew).
• Compute volumetric flow rate from u.
• Water flows through a horizontal 250 ft long, 1-in schedule 40 commercial
steel pipe. The pressure drop is 4.5 psi. Calculate the volumetric flow rate.
CASE 3: Known flow rate and pressured drop, unknown diameter
• Estimate or guess the pipe diameter; then, compute the mean velocity.
• Compute the Reynolds number.
• Compute /D.
• Compute fF.
• Compute diameter from MEB.
• Compare this diameter to the assumed. If not equal, use the diameter computed
in 5 as the new assumption. Repeat the procedure until convergence.
• A mountain water reservoir in a national park is to provide water at a flow rate
of Q = 200 gpm and a minimum pressure of 40 psig to the lodge in the valley
200 ft below the reservoir. If the effective length of pipe is 2,000 ft, what is
the minimum standard pipe size that is needed? Neglect exit kinetic energy
effects.