Research Methods

Assist. Prof. Dr. Sevinc KURT

Cyprus International University
Research Methods

Research Methods and Statistics

are tools.

Concern is:
•How to use them?
•When to use them?
Ways of Knowing (Kerlinger, 1986)

1. Method of Tenacity (Always Believed)

2. Method of Intuition (Feels Good)

3. Method of Authority (Respected Source)

4. Method of Science (Empirical/Objective

The Goals of Science?
1. Description

2. Explanation

3. Prediction

4. Control
Scientific Methodology

Scientific Methodology =
a systematic analysis of the rational and experimental
principles which guide an inquiry.
Scientific Method involves:

1. Theory = an integrated set of principles that explain

and predict facts

2. Hypothesis = a prediction of what is the case (fact)

based on theory

3. Observation = a comparison of hypothesis to what is

the case
What Research Is Not

Research isn’t information gathering:

- Gathering information from resources such books or

magazines isn’t research.
- No contribution to new knowledge.

Research isn’t the transportation of facts:

- Merely transporting facts from one resource to another doesn’t

constitute research.

- No contribution to new knowledge although this might make

existing knowledge more accessible.
What Research Is

 Research is:

•“…the systematic process of collecting and

analyzing information (data) in order to increase
our understanding of the phenomenon about
which we are concerned or interested.

•Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC

way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS
What is Research

 Systematic inquiry directed toward to creation of

knowledge (Groat Wang, p7)
 Scientific, systematic or other approach used to
study a problem
 An acceptable approach to acquire dependable &
useful information about our problem so we can then
analyze the information
 Regardless of the discipline, research is usually a
systematic and objective search for reliable
information
Research Characteristics

1. Originates with a question or problem.

2. Requires clear articulation of a goal.
3. Follows a specific plan or procedure.
4. Often divides main problem into subproblems.
5. Guided by specific problem, question, or
hypothesis.
6. Accepts certain critical assumptions.
7. Requires collection and interpretation of data.
8. Cyclical (helical) in nature.
Research Projects

 Research begins with a problem.

-This problem need not be Earth-shaking.

 Identifying this problem can actually be the hardest part

of research.

 In general, good research projects should:

- Address an important question.
- Advance knowledge.
Research Project Pitfalls

 The following kinds of projects usually don’t make

for good research:

- Self-enlightenment.
- Comparing data sets.
- Correlating data sets.
- Problems with yes / no answers.
High-Quality Research

 Good research requires:

-The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly
defined.
-The process to be clearly explained so that it can be
reproduced and verified by other researchers.
-Highly ethical standards be applied.
-All limitations be documented.
-Data be adequately analyzed and explained.
Sources of Research Problems

 Observation.

 Literature reviews.

 Professional conferences.

 Experts.
Stating the Research Problem

 Once you’ve identified a research problem:

-State that problem clearly and completely.
-Determine the process of the research.

 Identify subproblems:
-Completely researchable units.
-Small in number.
-Add up to the total problem.
-Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of the
data.
Hypotheses

 Hypotheses are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the

solution of the problem.

-There is often a 1-1 correspondence between a

subproblem and a hypothesis.

-Hypotheses can direct later research activities since they

can help determine the nature of the research and methods
applied.
Delimitations

 All research has limitations and thus certain work

that will not be performed.

 The work that will not be undertaken is described as

the delimitations of the research.
Importance of the Study

 Many research problems have a kind of theoretical

feel about them. Such projects often need to be
justified.
-What is the research project’s practical value?

 Without this justification, it will prove difficult to

convince others that the problem in question is worth
study.
The Research Process
—Seven Phases

1. Select a general problem

2. Review the literature on the problem
3. Decide the specific research problem,
question, or hypothesis
4. Determine the design and methodology
5. Collect data
6. Analyze data and present the results
7. Interpret the findings and state conclusions
or summary regarding the problem
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 19
The Research Spiral
 The Research Process (M & S, p. 11)

Select a Conduct
general literature
problem review
State conclusion/
generalization
Exhaustive Preliminary about problem
review search, later
expanded

Select specific problem, Collect Analyze and Interpret

research question, or data present data findings
hypothesis

Statistical Integrative
Decide design and
tables diagrams
methodology
Research Process and Design (Umbach) 21
Research Design
Research Design
Research design describes how the study
was conducted

◦ What is general plan

◦ How research is set up
◦ What happens to the subjects
◦ What were methods of data collection

Research Design and Methodology (Kurt) 22

 Three Major Categories of Research
Design
Quantitative
◦ Experimental (true, quasi, single-subject)
◦ Nonexperimental (descriptive, comparative,
correlational, ex post facto)
Qualitative
Mixed Methods

23
Common Methodologies

 Methodologies are high-level approaches to

conducting research.

-The individual steps within the methodology might vary

based on the research being performed.

 Two commonly used research methodologies:

-Quantitative.
-Qualitative.
(Lately Mixed research methodology is also used)
-
Research Design:
Qualitative or Quantitative?
Words START
Numbers
Are the data primarily
in the form of
QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATATIV Numbers or Words
E Does the researcher
Experimental Yes have control over an
independent
True is random variable?
Yes
experimental assignment used?
No
No
Nonexperimental
Quasi
experimental is the study
investigating how
variables change
Survey Yes together?
No
Correlational
Methodology Comparison

Quantitative Qualitative

Explanation, prediction Explanation, description

Test theories Build theories
Known variables Unknown variables
Large sample Small sample
Standardized instruments Observations,
Deductive interviews
Inductive
Methodology Comparison
Methodology Comparison
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Mixed Methods Research
Identifying a Research Problem
What is a Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
The Research Problem
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Reviewing The Literature
Types Of Research Design
• experimental
• survey
• case study
• comparative
• grounded theory
• ethnography
• action research
• cross-sectional and longitudinal
Experimental Design

Rare in Social Studies, has been used in

social psychology.
Method of the natural sciences =
positivist

63
Experimental
Experiment Design

Sir Isaac Newton

Involves:
• the definition of a theoretical hypothesis;
• the selection of samples of individuals from known
populations;
• allocations of samples to different experimental
conditions;
• introduction of a planned change on one or more of
the variables;
• measurement on a small number of the variables;
• control of other variables. 64
Survey
Survey

Cross sectional design.

Data collected by questionnaire or
structured interview from a sample of
respondents
Looking for patterns of association /
correlation.

65
Survey

Surveys
• Allied to the deductive approach;

• Are economical but you need time to

design and pilot the questionnaire;

• Often involve q’aires but can also involve

structured observation.

66
Survey

Research questions appropriate for a survey

1. Behaviour.

2. Attitudes /Beliefs / Opinions.

3. Characteristics.

4. Expectations.

5. Self-classification.
10
6. Knowledge. 67
Survey

Main advantages of survey

• ability to collect large amounts of data;

• the relatively cheap cost at which these data

may be collected;

• perceived as authoritative by some;

68
Survey

The more structured the techniques...

A) The more respondents can be involved

B) The easier coding and pre-coding becomes

C) The easier quantification, comparison

and measurement becomes

69
Survey

The more structured the techniques...

D) The easier it becomes to analyse statistically

E) The greater reliability likely

reliability is about accuracy, consistency, precision

and lack of error- the ability to produce results
which are dependable, repeatable.
70
Survey

But, the more structured the techniques...

A) The less possibility for understanding
respondents meanings and motives

B) The greater the possibility of validity problems

arising e.g. do all respondents interpret q’s the same
way?

71
Survey

But, the more structured the techniques...

C) The more the richness of qualitative accounts is lost

D) The less it tells us about the subjective world

of the respondents……hence the need for a
‘phenomenological /naturalistic ’ inquiry.

72
Case Study

Detailed / Intensive analysis of a single

case. School, Community, Family,
Organisation.
Can be both quantitative and qualitative.
If qualitative likely to use inductive
approach.

73
Case Study

Issue of Generalisability, how can a

single case be representative.
Case study offers intensive examination
of a single case, key issue is not
Generalisability but development of
ideas / theory = inductive.

74
Comparative Research

Comparison, learn more about social

phenomena = welfare state, impact of
legislation if we compare to a different
setting

75
Grounded theory

• Data collection starts without any

formal theoretical framework.

• Theory is developed from data by a series Barney Glaser

of observations, which leads to GTI
• the generation of predictions that are
• tested in further observations, which may
• confirm or otherwise the predictions.

Theory is grounded in continual reference to the data.

.
76
Etnography

• Firmly rooted in the inductive approach.

• Developed out of field work in anthropology.

• Purpose : to interpret the world the way the

‘locals’ interpret it.

• Is time consuming./ problems of access.

• Linked to participant observation.

77
Etnography
Ethnography
Listens to and engages in conversations
Interviews informants
Collects documents
Develop understanding of culture and
people’s behaviour within the context of
that culture.

78
Action Research

Action researcher and client = school,

hospital, prison collaborate in the
definition of a problem and development
of a solution.
Emphasis is on problem solving /
practical solutions which are validated
through practise

79
Cross Sectional Design

Usually associated with social survey.

Research data is collected at a single
point of time.
Select a number of cases for study and
thus allow for an explanation of variation.

80
Cross Sectional Design

Interested in looking at relationships

between variables = draw causal
inferences.
Can be both qualitative and quantitative

81
Longitudinal Designs

Involves time / costs.

Occurs over a period of time thus more
able to draw causal inferences.
Panel Study is based on a random sample.

82
Longitudinal Designs

Cohort study, a sample of people who

share a certain characteristic = age,
unemployment.
Problems of this approach are
◦ Sample attrition
◦ Panel conditioning affects how respondents
behave.

83
Multi-method approaches

Approaches and strategies can be mixed and matched

e.g. Qualitative and quantitative, Primary and secondary data.

e.g. Interviews can be part of exploratory work –

Which method??? No easy answers.

Bear in mind your research objectives
first.

84
Multi-method approaches

Triangulation:

refers to the use of different methods within one

study in order to ensure that the data are telling you
what they think they are telling you.

e.g semi-structured interviews alongside q’ares to ensure

greater confidence in your conclusions.

85
Evaluation of Research

Four Criteria for Evaluation of Research

Reliability
Replication
Validity
Generalisability (External Validity)

86
 Interpreting Data

· Reliability: were your work to be repeated

by another researcher, would the same
result be produced?

· If so then your research may be judged

as reliable

87
Replication

Close to reliability, someone may wish to

replicate your research.

Thus need to spell out in detail

definitions, steps you undertook in doing
the research.

88
Validity

Do your methods actually measure the

issues you have been researching.
This relates to the integrity of your
conclusions

89
Generalisability

Also known as external validity.

Are your findings generalisable to other contexts, e.g. other

organisations?

Particularly applies to single case studies.

Be clear about your claims - if you do not claim that it is
possible to generalise to other settings then say so.

90
 Summary

 The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case stud

grounded theory, ethnography and action research. Again, you
should not think of these as discrete entities. There may be a
combination of some of these in the same research project.

 Research projects may be cross-sectional or longitudinal.

 Multi-method approaches to research mean that different

Purposes may be served and that triangulation of results is
facilitated.

91
 Summary

You should take care to ensure that your results are valid and
reliable.

You should always think carefully about the ethical issues implied
by the choice of your research strategy.

92
Architectural Research Methods
Linda Groat & David Wang
 Interpretive –Historical Research
 Qualitative Research
 Correlational Research
 Experimental and Quassi Experimental Research
 Simulation and Modelling Research
 Logical Argumantation
 Case Studies and Combined Strategies
How to Define Your Project
 You must take time to think about your research as this will save you
problems later.

 When you’re thinking about your research, ask yourself the five ‘Ws’:

– What is my research?
– Why do I want to do the research?
– Who are my research participants?
– Where am I going to do the research?
– When am I going to do the research?

 Sum up your research project in one sentence.

 Discuss your sentence with your tutor and revise if there is any
confusion.
How to Decide Upon a
Methodology

 The research methodology is the philosophy or general

principle which guides the research.

 Research methods are the tools you use to gather your

data.

 Qualitative research explores attitudes, behavior and

experiences.
How to Decide Upon a
Methodology

 Examples of qualitative methodologies include action

research, ethnography, feminist research and grounded
theory.

 Quantitative research generates statistics through the use of

large-scale survey research.

 Neither qualitative nor quantitative research is better –

they are just different. Both have their strengths and
weaknesses.
How to Decide Upon a
Methodology

 Your own intuition and the words you use will give
pointers to whether qualitative or quantitative research
is more appropriate for your chosen project.

 The term ‘triangulation’ is used when a combination of

qualitative and quantitative forms of inquiry are used.
How to Choose Your
Research Methods

 Your own intuition and the words you use will give
pointers to whether qualitative or quantitative research
is more appropriate for your chosen project.

 The term ‘triangulation’ is used when a combination of

qualitative and quantitative forms of inquiry are used.