UZ CE406 Hydraulic Structures - Dam Design Lecture eLMS Version

UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
CE406
HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES:
KEY ELEMENTS IN THE DESIGN OF SMALL & MEDIUM SIZED DAMS
Dr. Eng. M. J. TUMBARE

March 2020
COURSE OBJECTIVES
• Define /articulate the difference between dams and reservoirs
• Understand why we build dams
• Understand the classification of dams according to purpose
• Understand the classification of dams according to materials
• Understand the classification of dams according to size and hazard potential
• Articulate the various types of dams
• Understand the need for extensive investigations and designs related to
new dams
• Understand the factors governing the selection of type of dam
• Articulate main investigations/calculations prior to dam design
• Understand the purpose and types of river diversion works, spillways,
outlet works and energy dissipation structures
• Understand the importance of dam safety, instrumentation and surveillance
Hydraulic Structures: Key Elements in the Design of Small & Medium sized Dams
2
Dr. Eng. M. J. Tumbare: March 2020
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING
• Muyambo A. (2000). Design and Construction of Small Earth Dams, Ministry of
Water, Harare, Zimbabwe
• Ministry of Water Resources and Development. (1984). An Assessment of
Surface Water Resources of Zimbabwe and Guidelines for Development
Planning, Harare
• World Commission on Dams. (2000). Dams and Development – A New
Framework for Decision Making, Earthscan Publications, London
• Kollgard E. B. & Chadwick W. L., (eds). (1988). Development of Dam Engineering
in the United States, Pergamon Press, New York
• Varma C. V. J. & Rao A. R. G. (1996). Dam Safety Evaluation, Proceedings of the
2nd international Conference Volumes 1 & 2, Oxford & IBH Publishing, New Delhi
• Kabell T. C. (1984). Design of Dam Outlets, Design Note, Ministry of Water
Resources and development, Harare
• Nelson K D. (1991). Design and construction of small earth dams. Inkata press,
Australia. ISBN 0 909605 34 3.
3
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING (Cont..)
• Mitchell T. B. (1976). “The yield of an average dam in Rhodesia.” Journal and
proceedings of the Rhodesian institution of Engineers, pp37-41.
• Mitchell T. B. (1987). “The yield from irrigation dams of low storage ratio.”
Journal and proceedings, Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers. pp627-630.
• Stephens T. (1991). Handbook on small dams and weirs. Cranfield press.
• HR Wallingford, 2004, Guidelines for predicting and Minimising
Sedimentation in Small Dams, HR Wallingford/DFID, Report OD 152 (Rev. 0.0).
• Garg S. K., 2014, Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic Structures,
Khanna Publishers
• US Army Corps of Engineers, 2004, General Design and Construction
Considerations for Earth and Rock-Fill Dams, Manual No. 111 0-2-2300,
Washington DC http://
www.publications.usace.army.mil/Portals/76/Publications/EngineerManuals
/EM_1110-2-2300.pdf
• FAO, 2010, Manual on Small Earth: A guide to siting, design and construction,
FAO Rome, ISBN978-92-5-106547-1
Dfile:///F:/FAO%20Manual%20on%20Small%20Earth%20Dams.pdfams
4
DAMS vs. RESERVOIRS
• A dam is any barrier, usually built across a river that holds
back water to form a reservoir.
• Another definition of a dam is “a structure designed and
constructed for the purpose of safe storage of water in a
river”.
• They are however also off-river-storage dams that are not
constructed on a river but are filled with water from a water
source through either gravity or pumping.
• Run-of-the river dams usually have small storage.
• A reservoir on the other hand is a specific body of water
formed by the construction of a dam.
5
CROSS SECTION OF A DAM & RESERVOIR
Dam
Reservoir
6
KARIBA DAM AND RESERVOIR
Hydraulic Structures: Key Elements in the

Design of Small & Medium sized Dams 7
WHY DO WE BUILD DAMS
• Dams are primarily used to save, manage, and/or prevent the flow
of excess water into specific regions.
• Dams are built to meet the needs or wants of;
commercial/manufacturing/mining industries, agriculture, marine
transport, domestic/institutional water supply, water for the
environment, fisheries/aqua-culture, hydro/thermal power
generation, recreation, ground water recharge, pollution control,
flood and drought mitigation amongst other primary needs or wants
of the end users who are the beneficiaries.
• The selection of a dam as the source of water to meet the needs or
wants of the end users, is made after consideration of other possible
cheaper sources of water such as from; boreholes, perennial rivers,
natural lakes/reservoirs.
8
WHY DO WE BUILD DAMS (CONT…)
• The construction of dams is therefore not a dam engineer’s

pre-occupation, but an engineering solution to efficiently meet
the needs or wants of the end users who are ultimately the
beneficiaries.
• In Zimbabwe, which experiences seasonal and erratic rainfall,

the need to build dams to store this precious fluid becomes of
national interest for the country’s continued economic growth.
• Dams provide adaptation and mitigation management

measures to the impacts of climate change/variability.
9
Some Impacts of Climate Change/Variability
10
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS ACCORDING TO
PURPOSE
Stage Control Dams
• Diversion: to raise water levels at entrance to
canal or other diversion so as to allow gravity
flow into diversion system (mainly weirs)
• Navigation: to maintain navigable depth of
flow
• Retardation: to retard velocity of flow in a
steep channel
11
PURPOSE (CONT….)
Storage dams
• Flood Control: to store peak flow discharges in reservoirs with controlled
releases to minimise downstream flood damage
• Water Supply: to store water inflows until times of water demand
• Hydro-electric power: to provide the potential head and water storage for
hydropower generation
• Sedimentation: to remove sediments from inflows through settling
• Recreation: to provide a water surface for boating, swimming, fishing,
etc.
• Ground Water Recharge: to detain flood flow sufficiently to allow
infiltration to occur
• Pollution Control: to provide clean water for discharge as needed to
dilute contaminated downstream waters
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PURPOSE (CONT….)
Barrier dams
• Dikes and levees: to protect land areas from
overbank flow
• Cofferdams: for temporary dewatering of
construction sites or as part of temporary
diversion works
13
PURPOSE (CONT….)
Multi-purpose dams
• Dams frequently serve more than one of the three
purposes above and many combine aspects of each
of the three main categories. Operation of such
multipurpose dams is complicated by sometimes
opposing needs.
• Multi-purpose dams provide storage water for a
variety of uses usually resulting in optimum use of
the stored water.
14
MATERIALS
Masonry
Dams constructed from large sized rocks
(masonry) and mortar. These can be;
• Gravity: designed so that water and other
loads are resisted by the weight of the dam
wall
• Gravity Arch: similar to Gravity but curved in
plan
15
MATERIALS (CONT…)
Concrete
Dams constructed from concrete aggregates. These can be;
• Gravity: designed so that water and other loads are resisted
by the weight of the dam wall
 Massive gravity
 Hollow gravity
• Arch: loads resisted by arch action carried to the abutments
• Gravity-Arch: loads resisted by a combination of gravity and
arch action
• Buttress: loads resisted by slab or arch action between
successive buttress support
16
Cahora Bassa Dam and Reservoir
17
MATERIALS (CONT…)
Earthfill
Dams made from pervious and impervious earthfill. These
are designed to resist loads by gravity and by mechanisms
of embankment stability. Examples are;
• Homogeneous earth dams
• Zoned earth dams with internal core of relatively impervious
material
Rockfill
Dams intermediate between earthfill and masonry gravity
dams. Primarily made of rock with an impervious
upstream face or middle section.
18
EARTH DAM X-SECTIONS
19
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS BY SIZE AND
HAZARD POTENTIAL
• Differences exist in the classification of dams by size and/or hazard
potential.
• Some countries use the International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD) classification whilst others use their own. ICOLD, established in
1928, defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 metres or more
from the foundation. If dams are between 5 and 15 metres high and
have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million m 3 or a flood discharge
greater than 2 000m3/s or have complicated site conditions, then they
are also classified as large dams.
• Various literature and country practices give various definitions.
However the general principle to be followed is that a dam or reservoir
shall be classified in accordance with size and the hazard potential
which might occur in the event of an operational or structural failure.
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CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS BY SIZE AND
HAZARD POTENTIAL (CONT….)
In apportioning a hazard potential classification, the following will be
considered, without limitation:
• The height of the dam and storage capacity of the reservoir.
• The physical characteristics and extent of actual and projected
development of the dam site and downstream areas.
• The relationship of the site to existing or projected industrial, commercial
and residential areas and other land uses downstream which may be
affected by a dam failure.
• In Zimbabwe, the storage and height of a dam are taken into account in
the definition of small, medium, large and major dam classifications for
design purposes. However, the Zimbabwe Water Act 1998 gives only two
classifications of dams; small and large.
• Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 give a summary of these classifications and definitions.
21
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS BY STORAGE AND HEIGHT
TABLE 1: ZINWA DESIGN
CLASS Impoundment Dam Height
Storage (M)
(x106m3)
Major > 20 OR > 30
Large > 3 but ≤ 20 OR ≥ 15 but ≤ 30
Medium ≥ 1 but ≤ 3 OR ≥ 8 but < 15
Small <1 OR <8
22
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS BY STORAGE AND HEIGHT
TABLE 2: ZIMBABWE WATER ACT 1998
Impoundment
Dam Height
Class Storage
(M)
(x10 m ) 6 3
Large >1 OR ≥ 15
Small ≥ 0.5 but < 1 OR ≥ 8 but < 15
23
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS BY SIZE AND HAZARD POTENTIAL
TABLE 3
Category Loss of Life Economic Loss

Excessive (extensive residential,
High Substantial commercial, agricultural and substantial
public inconvenience)
Few (no rural communities or urban Appreciable (damage to private or public

Moderate developments and no more than a property and short duration public
small number of habitable structures) inconvenience)
Minimal (undeveloped or occasional

None expected (no permanent
Low structures with no significant effect on
structure for human habitation)
public inconvenience)
24
THE NEED FOR EXTENSIVE INVESTIGATIONS
AND DESIGNS RELATED TO NEW DAMS
• Investigations for a new dam are usually extensive once
the location of the dam site has been established.
• The siting of a dam usually starts as a desk study involving
scrutiny of 1: 50 000 topographic maps to find suitable
dam sites around the area of water demand.
• Soil and geological maps are also studied around the area
of water demand. The hydrology of the dam site is also
determined.
• The findings are then reported in a Desk Study Report.
25
THE NEED FOR EXTENSIVE INVESTIGATIONS AND
DESIGNS RELATED TO NEW DAMS (CONT….)
If a potential site is identified, investigation teams

are then sent out to confirm the Desk Study Report
findings with particular reference to:
• Effects on public utilities etc
• Surface features
• Sub-surface features explored through;
» Test pits (dam foundations, spillway area and borrow pit
areas)
» Trenches along the proposed dam and spillway centre line
» Test adits
» Geophysical (seismic) investigations
26
• After these site investigations, a Feasibility Study Report is then produced followed by
an EIA/ESIA to facilitate decisions on whether the project can proceed or not or proceed
with additional mitigation aspects prior to the production of the Design Report.
• If human and financial resources are available for construction, then the dam proceeds
to the construction phase.
The importance of extensive investigations and rigorous dam design can never be over-
emphasised because;
• The consequences of failure of a dam are usually severe and can result in loss of life and
property damage
• Most dams are a vital part of the infrastructure of a community and the loss of the dam
will be a severe set-back
• The loads on dams can be high compared to other structures and they are also non-
vertical
• The founding materials can have differing strengths and deformation moduli causing
differential movements to occur
27
• High hydraulic gradients and water pressures are developed in dam
foundations and measures must be taken to ensure that the foundation
can withstand these pressures
• Each dam site has its unique set of site characteristics that must be
considered in investigations, design and during construction
• Dam design is both an art and a science as every dam site is unique.
• Dam design is performed to meet four basic objectives namely; Function,
Economy, Safety and Aesthetics (FESA).
• In Zimbabwe therefore, all the designs for dams and large dams, as
defined in the Water Act 1998, have to be checked and be approved by a
gazetted civil engineer for dams or large dams as the case warrants prior
to construction.
• Further, inspections during construction have to be similarly undertaken
by a gazetted civil engineer for dams or large dams as the case warrants.
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THE FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM
There are four main types of dams in respect to the materials used to
construct them.
• These are earthfill, rockfill, masonry and concrete dams.
• The selection of either of the four is done to fulfil the FESA principles and in particular
the following site characteristics influence greatly the type selected;
– Topography
– Geology
– Foundation conditions
– Materials availability
– Spillway considerations
– Location of site from water demand centre
– Environmental Impacts
– Socio-economic Impacts
– Seismicity
– Hydrology
29
THE FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM
The width (W) to height (H) ratio is used to

classify a valley. There are V and U shaped valleys.
The criteria below are used.
• W/H ≤ 3 V- Shaped Valley suitable for arch
dams
• W/H > 3 ≤ 6 U-Shaped Valley suitable for gravity
dams
• W/H > 6 U-Shaped Valley only suitable for
embankments dams
30
MAIN INVESTIGATIONS/CALCULATIONS REQUIRED
BEFORE DAM DESIGN
1. RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS
2. HYDROLOGY
3. RESERVOIR YIELD
4. SOURCES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
5. SPILLWAY LOCATION
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BEFORE DAM DESIGN (Cont...)
1. Reservoir characteristics
 Basin Survey
 Preliminary evaluation of storage capacity may be made with minimum of
survey, using the root mean square method of interpolation between
surveyed contour levels, where the mean of two contour areas A 1 and A2 is
not arithmetic but is given by:
 Stage (level) – Area curves

 Area - Capacity curves
 Stage (level) – Capacity curves
 Fetch
 Wind Speeds
32
Dam Capacity
Dam capacity (V) estimates, using 1:50 000 Maps and the Nelson (1991) equation, can be
made using the proposed dam depth, dam width and the “throwback” at the full supply
level. Throwback is the distance between the dam axis and the upstream limit of the
reservoir pool, at the spillway crest elevation. Using the Nelson (1991) equation:
V = 0.22*Kn* D* W*TB
Where:
V = Dam capacity (m3)
Kn = 1.2 generally
D = The maximum water depth, i.e. the difference in elevation between lowest
point in the reservoir bed at the dam and the spillway crest level (m)
W = The width of water surface at the dam at the spillway crest level (m)
TB = The “throwback” at the spillway crest level (m)
33
Reduced Level-Surface Area Curve

1050
1000
Reduced Level (m)
950
900
850
800
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Surface Area (Ha)
34
Reduced Level-Capacity Curve

1050
1000
Reduced Level (m)
950
900
850
800
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Capacity (x 106 m3)
35
Surface Area - Capacity Curve

6000
5000
4000
Surface Area (Ha)
3000
2000
1000
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Capacity (x 106 m3)
36
2. Hydrology
a. Mean Annual Runoff (M.A.R)
This is the long term average runoff and is normally expressed in
millimetres, thus making it independent of the actual catchment
area. The flow in any river arises from a combination of
immediate surface runoff following a rainstorm and the longer
term runoff from water which percolates down through the soils
to reach the water table and then gravitates gradually to the
nearest river system.
37
b. Coefficient of variation of annual runoff (CV%)

• Information on the CV is needed to determine the probability
of a dam filling.
• In Zimbabwe, tables or maps are available which give the CV.
• Where these data are not available a value for CV has to be
estimated to correlate the Coefficient of variation of mean
annual runoff with MAR.
• CV = 0.00139MAR2 - 0.7538MAR + 154.5
Where:
CV = Coefficient of variation of annual runoff (%)
MAR = Mean annual runoff (mm)
38
The main factors affecting runoff are as follows:
 Rainfall: Areas with higher annual rainfalls will have a higher runoff. Where the
rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year, most of the runoff will be from
ground water draining into the streams. In areas having a shortened rainy season the
individual storms are likely to have higher intensities and hence a larger proportion of
the total runoff will be derived from surface runoff since the rainfall intensity will
more frequently exceed the infiltration rate of the ground.
 Soil type and depth: Surface runoff is also governed by the infiltration rate and water
bearing capacity of the soils, thus deep pervious formations will produce less such
runoff than shallow soils of low water bearing capacity.
 Topography: Excluding the effect of topography on the runoff of an area, all yield is
generally proportional to the ground slope since steeper ground generally denotes
shallow soils, as well as reducing the time available for infiltration as a result of
increased speed of travel to the nearest stream bed.
 Vegetative cover: Ground cover increases the infiltration period thus reducing runoff.
Foliage causes water loss by evapo-transpiration and the interception of rainfall.
39
c. Flood Discharge
Flood discharge is mainly affected by the following factors:
• Catchment area
• Mean annual rainfall
• Intensity, duration and variation of rainfall
• Ratio of catchment length to its width
• Topography and vegetation
40
d. Design flood return periods

Dams have to be designed to comply with dam safety
regulations which usually:
• specify the return period of the flood that a dam spillway
must be able to pass safely.
• are based on both the size of the dam and the hazard
potential should the dam fail.
• Spillway based on the design flood
• Dam overtopping based on the peak (MPF) flood
• Table 4 gives details of the Flood Return Periods to use
41
HAZARD AND FLOOD RETURN PERIODS
TABLE 4
Hazard Loss of life Economic Return Return period
Potential Loss period of of peak flood
design flood (years)
(years)
Very low Extremely Minimal 100 250

unlikely
Low Improbable Marginal 250 750
Moderate Possible Appreciable 750 2 000
High Probable Excessive 2 000 10 000
42
e. Design Peak Flood
The estimation of peak flood discharge in Zimbabwe is based on the
formula given below (Mitchell, 1974):
Ln(MPF+1) = 1.175 * [ Ln(A+1)]0.755+3.133

Where:
M.P.F – Maximum Probable Flood (m3/s) for a 1:10 000 year flood
A – Catchment Area (km2)
The flood is estimated only as a function of the catchment area, with

which there is a definite and significant correlation. It is accepted that
flood magnitudes must be affected by many other factors such as
catchment shape and slope, geology and land use, but there is insufficient
data available for these factors to be mathematically analysed.
43
BEFORE DAM DESIGN (Cont...) - TABLE 5
Table for conversion of 10000 year to other Return Periods

Return Period (years) Factor (x M.P.F)
10 0.115
25 0.192
50 0.263
100 0.340
250 0.449
500 0.541
750 0.593
1 000 0.637
2 000 0.742
2 500 0.776
5 000 0.885
10 000 1.000
44
MAIN INVESTIGATIONS/CALCULATIONS
REQUIRED BEFORE DAM DESIGN (Cont...)
f. Probability of a dam filling
The probability of a dam filling can be estimated from the coefficient of
variation of annual runoff and the dam capacity to annual inflow ratio, using a
procedure developed for dams in Zimbabwe described in Mitchell (1987) using
the Wiebul distribution to represent the distribution of annual inflows to a
dam:
P = e-km
Where:
P = Probability of a dam filling from empty
km = (c*V/I)n
V = Dam Capacity at Full Supply Level (m3)
I = Annual inflow (m3)
c = Constant related to CV as shown in Table 6
n = Constant related to CV as shown in Table 6
45
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION OF ANNUAL RUNOFF
RELATIONSHIP WITH “c” AND “n” - TABLE 6
CV (%) c n
60 0.90 1.72
70 0.91 1.45
80 0.94 1.26
90 0.97 1.11
100 1.00 1.00
110 1.05 0.91
120 1.11 0.84
130 1.17 0.78
140 1.24 0.73
46
3. Reservoir Yield
 The yield of a dam is the amount of water that can be reliably abstracted
from the dam every year.
 The reservoir yield in Zimbabwe is calculated using Mitchell’s method,
(1976).
 A risk factor of 4% (that is failure to supply the quoted yield in four years
out of hundred years in average, or once in twenty-five years) is accepted
for domestic use.
 A risk of 10% is accepted for agricultural use.
 The magnitude of yield of dam at a given risk level depends on how the
abstractions from the reservoir is managed.
 The yield of a dam increases with capacity but does not increase ad
infinitum due to dam site limitations.
47
4. Sources of Construction Materials
 Borrow Areas – core, fill, filters
 Quarries – concrete aggregates (AAR), rip rap, stone pitching, rock fill
 Cement
 Water – camp site, construction
5. River Diversion
6. Spillway Location
 Type of spillway
 Return channel
 Energy dissipation
48
UNDERSTANDING THE PURPOSE AND TYPES OF RIVER
DIVERSION, SPILLWAYS, OUTLET WORKS AND ENERGY
DISSIPATION STRUCTURES
River Diversion
• Cofferdams
• Outlet works
• Spillway area
• Construction sequencing
– Main dam concrete structure
– Masonry dam structures
– Original riverbed
– Rockfill dams
• Saddle dams
49
UNDERSTANDING THE PURPOSE AND TYPES OF RIVER DIVERSION,
SPILLWAYS, OUTLET WORKS AND ENERGY DISSIPATION
STRUCTURES (CONT…)
Spillways
• Spillways are necessary on dams to pass the design flood safely. This is
when the dam fills to above its full supply capacity.
• It is important that the Spillway is adequately designed as overtopping
of the dam may occur resulting in dam failure.
• The hydraulic conditions at the Spillway entrance should always be
thoroughly investigated to ensure that the water level control section
is actually at the cill and not somewhere else upstream.
• The design flood is the inflow into the dam but it does not necessarily
follow that the Spillway needs to pass that full inflow flood since part
of the volume of such flood is absorbed by the surcharge capacity of
the dam which is created by the rise in water level required in order
for the spillway to operate (basin absorption).
50
Spillways
• The Spillway is a major part of a dam, which is built to release flood
flow.
• The design and construction of Spillways is very expensive and
includes a major part of the dam’s construction costs. For large dams,
it is about 20% of total dam’s construction cost, and for small dams
about 80%.
• Depending on the hydraulic conditions of flow and the geologic
characteristics of the dam’s site, Spillways can be built in different
types and shapes.
• Due to the high flow discharge over the Spillways, their design and
construction are very complicated and usually faced with difficulties
such as cavitations and high flow kinetic energy
51
Spillway dimensions
• After determining the peak flood outflow “Q”, values of “h” and “W” are
calculated by assuming one value and calculating the other from the
general Spillway discharge formula:
Q = Cd * L * (h)1.5
Where:
Q = Discharge (m3/s)
Cd = Coefficient of discharge; 1.8 for masonry spillways, 1.65 for
grassed spillways, 2.3 to 2.8 for broad crested weirs, 3.0 to 3.4 for
sharp crested weirs and 3.5 to 4.0 for Ogee spillways
L = Spillway length (m)
h = Head of water over the spillway (m)
• Constraints on spillway width imposed by local site conditions and
construction costs may determine “L”.
52
DISSIPATION STRUCTURES (CONT…)
• Intensity (I)
Rainfall
• This is the amount of rainfall in a given time (e.g. mm/hour).
• The shorter the duration, the greater the intensity of rainfall.
• When adequate reliable records on rainfall are not available,
the following formula derived from the Triangular Model
Hydrograph and the Rational Formula can be used to determine
the rainfall intensity:
I =
Where: Q = Peak discharge (run-off), m3/s
A = Catchment area, km2
53
• duration (Tp)
Storm
• The storm duration is the period of time which rainfall falls
and if reliable rainfall measurements are not available, the
storm duration can be estimated from:
Tp =
Where: R = Runoff, mm
N = Return period, years
I = Rainfall intensity, mm/hour
54
•
Total Freeboard (TF)
• Every dam, particularly for earthfill dams, needs adequate total freeboard.
• The total freeboard can be calculated from:
TF = Wet Freeboard + Dry Freeboard
• The Wet Freeboard is obtained from the Spillway design.
• The Dry Freeboard = Wave Height + Settlement Allowance
• Wave Height is required due to wave action and is specified to a minimum of
0.75 meters in Zimbabwe. As an average, the Wave Height can be calculated
from the formula;
Wave Height (m), = 0.032
Where: V = the wind speed in km/hour in direction of dam
F = the Fetch in kilometers
55
56
Cahora Bassa Dam Spillway
(Flooded Gated Spillway)
57
The general types of Spillways are;

1. Overflow Spillway (gated or un-gated) – spillage water flows;
• Over the dam itself usually masonry or concrete but not earthfill
• Over a masonry or concrete section of the dam designed to pass the
water over its crest as part of an earthfill dam design
2. Chute Spillway
• Water flows over a Spillway crest into an open channel usually
constructed of reinforced concrete around the side of the dam and
suitable for earth dams
3. Grassed spillways for small earth dams
• Vegetated earth channel
• Earthen crest at reservoir top water level
• Maximum velocity of 2.5m/s
58
Jackson Lake Dam, Wyoming
(Gated overflow spillway)
59
Whiskeytown Dam, California
(Morning Glory/Glory Hole/Bell Mouth Spillway)
60
Big Sandy Dam, Wyoming
(Chute/Side Channel Spillway)
61
7. Siphon Spillway
• Initially a Siphon Spillway acts like an Overflow Spillway. At
higher reservoir water levels, the siphon is primed and the
discharge will then depend on the difference in head between
the reservoir and the siphon outlet. Flow discharge will
continue until the reservoir water level falls below the inlet.
• Siphon Spillways have the advantage that they can
automatically maintain water surface elevation within very
close limits. As soon as the siphon is primed, a vacuum forms
at the crown and in order to prevent cavitations, the siphon
should be designed so that this vacuum never exceeds three-
quarters atmospheric pressure.
62
Genil Cabra, Spain
(Siphon Spillway)
63
8. Emergency Spillway
• Usually a saddle or low point on natural ground will serve as
an Emergency Spillway which is used during extreme flood
events.
• Fuse plugs, which are basically broad–crested weirs with a
crest higher than the Spillway crest but below the maximum
water level with an earth embankment on top of the
Spillway, can also be used as an Emergency Spillway. The
Fuse Plug Spillway is designed to fail at a predetermined
reservoir level.
64
Stewart Mountain Dam, Arizona
[Emergency spillway (gated) in foreground and service spillway
(gated) in background]
65
9. Ogee Spillways
• Ogee Spillways are much more efficient compared to other
types of spillways
• An Ogee takes advantage of the rising lower nappe to
emulate a sharp-crested weir at a lower level
• The coefficient of discharge of an ogee is usually between
3.5 and 4.0
66
Ogee Spillway
67
Ogee Efficiency
Hydraulic Structures: Key Elements in the Design of Small & Medium sized Dams Dr.
68
Eng. M. J. Tumbare: March 2020
Ogee Efficiency (Cont..)
Hydraulic Structures: Key Elements in the Design of Small & Medium sized Dams Dr.
69
Eng. M. J. Tumbare: March 2020
10. Drop-Box & Labyrinth Spillways
70
Drop-Box Spillway
71
Labyrinth Spillway
72
Increasing Spillway Length
73
Outlet Works
• Every dam should have Outlet Works incorporated in
the dam design.
• The location of the Outlet Works is a major
consideration during the siting of a dam.
• The intake level of the Outlet Works will depend on
the use to which the dam is to be put, however, the
lower the intake level, the greater the available
discharge head and the higher the resultant
beneficial use of the storage.
74
Outlet Works
(Under construction)
75
• The size of the Outlet Works must enable passage

of normal flow requirements as a minimal under
minimum reservoir-level conditions.
• The total capacity of the outlets should be such
that in an emergency, the reservoir can be drawn
down at a rate of at least 300mm per day from the
full supply level.
• The general principles of design of Outlet Works
are given in a Paper by Kabell (1984).
76
Energy Dissipaters
• The passage of flood waters from reservoir level to
tailwater level will involve the dissipation of vast
amounts of energy.
• The velocities and pressures involved are huge and
destructive.
• Energy Dissipaters are usually incorporated in the
spillway design and form part and parcel of the
spillway in most cases.
77
The main types of Energy Dissipaters are;

• Free Overfall - energy dissipated in a
downstream coffer dam stilling basin (Katse
Dam, Lesotho) or the height of the overfall
exceeds 100m (Kariba Dam). The energy is
absorbed by the pool through turbulence,
noise and heat generation due to the fluid
viscosity.
78
KARIBA DAM PLUNGE POOL
79
Hydraulic Structures: Key Elements in the
Design of Small & Medium sized Dams 80
• Flip Bucket & Ski Jump Spillways- the purpose of

this type is to throw the water well clear of the
structure. The jet of a ski jump spillway leaves
horizontally whereas the jet of a flip bucket is
deflected upwards to induce disintegration in the
air. The spray produced can cause damage to the
countryside and may adversely affect nearby
electrical installations. The major amount of
energy dissipation occurs in the region where the
jet plunges into the tailwater.
81
Flip Bucket Spillway
82
UNDERSTANDING THE IMPORTANCE OF DAM SAFETY,
INSTRUMENTATION AND SURVEILLANCE
WHY?
• The potential loss of life, damage to property, damage to the
environment and loss of benefits from use of the dam caused by dam
failure make it imperative that means be available for gathering
information to assess dam performance and safety.
• Continued assurance of a dam’s safety is necessary during
construction, first filling of the reservoir and during its long term
operation.
• Effective instrumentation can help monitor and assess the safety of the
dam and provide this assurance.
• Dam instrumentation is there to compliment an adequate dam safety
inspection and surveillance programme and to provide a major portion
of the necessary information on structural behaviour.
83
UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF DAM SAFETY,
The usual factors to be monitored in both concrete

and embankment dams within the structure and
foundations are;
• Structural displacements
• Deformations
• Settlement
• Seepage
• Piezometric levels
• Pore pressures
84
The reasons for using instrumentation can be

grouped into four general categories; diagnostic,
predictive, legal and research.
Diagnostic Reasons
• Verification of design
• Verification of suitability of new construction
techniques
• Diagnosing the specific nature of specific events
• Verification of continued satisfactory performance
85
Predictive Reasons
• Data collected is essential for informed
predictions of future behaviour of the dam.
Legal Reasons
• Data collected can be important for possible
future litigation. Instrumentation data can help
to assess the causes of adverse events so that
proper legal adjudications can be reached.
86
Research
• Studying the performance of a dam and the
instrumentation data generated from it affords a
better understanding of the complexity of the many
forces acting, usually interdependently, on a dam and
provides quantifiable information for future designs.
• Such research has resulted in advances in
construction techniques, to improved and innovative
design concepts and to a better understanding of
failure mechanisms.
87
Instrumentation Philosophy
Instruments used in a given situation should have the
following characteristics;
• Sufficient accuracy
• Long term reliability
• Low maintenance requirements
• Compatibility with construction techniques
• Low cost
• Simplicity
88
• Before starting a monitoring and surveillance programme,

the roles and responsibilities of all involved in the design,
acquisition of equipment, reading, maintenance and
interpretation of data must be established.
• These positions must be adequately staffed and
programmes adequately funded.
• All staff and participants in the monitoring programme
must be well trained in what is being monitored.
• Monitoring programmes should be designed to answer
specific questions.
89
Monitoring Schedules
• A dam monitoring Schedule and Standing Operation
Procedures (SOP) should be put in place, which should be
informed by the Construction Report and the Operation &
Maintenance Manual of the Dam.
• For example, Kariba has a SOP and carries out bi-annual
inspections which produce an annual State-of-the-Dam
Report.
• There is also a Five-Yearly inspection of the dam carried
out by the Kariba Dam Safety Staff and external
Consultants.
90
VULNERABILITY OF DAMS
• There is need to investigate the preparedness of hydraulic structures

to climate change/variability and land use changes so as to ensure
dam safety.
• Analyzing and investigating the current scenario helps engineers and
hydrologists to develop new methods and design criteria which are
compatible with the current hydrology which takes into account
current climate change/variability and land use patterns.
• Areas of vulnerability of dams related to climate change/variability
and land use changes include:
– Spillway Discharge Capability
– Dam freeboard
– Outlet Works Designs
– Construction Diversion Facilities
91
THANK YOU: END OF LECTURE
mjtumbare@gmail.com
92

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UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

Dr. Eng. M. J. TUMBARE

Hydraulic Structures: Key Elements in the

• The construction of dams is therefore not a dam engineer’s

• In Zimbabwe, which experiences seasonal and erratic rainfall,

• Dams provide adaptation and mitigation management

Major > 20 OR > 30

Large > 3 but ≤ 20 OR ≥ 15 but ≤ 30

Medium ≥ 1 but ≤ 3 OR ≥ 8 but < 15

Small <1 OR <8

Small ≥ 0.5 but < 1 OR ≥ 8 but < 15

Category Loss of Life Economic Loss

Few (no rural communities or urban Appreciable (damage to private or public

Minimal (undeveloped or occasional

If a potential site is identified, investigation teams

The width (W) to height (H) ratio is used to

 Stage (level) – Area curves

Reduced Level-Surface Area Curve

Reduced Level-Capacity Curve

Capacity (x 106 m3)

Surface Area - Capacity Curve

b. Coefficient of variation of annual runoff (CV%)

d. Design flood return periods

Very low Extremely Minimal 100 250

Moderate Possible Appreciable 750 2 000

High Probable Excessive 2 000 10 000

Ln(MPF+1) = 1.175 * [ Ln(A+1)]0.755+3.133

The flood is estimated only as a function of the catchment area, with

Table for conversion of 10000 year to other Return Periods

The general types of Spillways are;

• The size of the Outlet Works must enable passage

The main types of Energy Dissipaters are;

• Flip Bucket & Ski Jump Spillways- the purpose of

The usual factors to be monitored in both concrete

The reasons for using instrumentation can be

• Before starting a monitoring and surveillance programme,

• There is need to investigate the preparedness of hydraulic structures

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