Radio activity and Particles

• Presented by –
Sheikh Khalilur Rahman
Physics Teacher, SJWS
 Henry Becquerel
The first person to discover evidence of radioactivity
 The Nuclear Atom and Radioactivity

The Nuclear Atom

In 1911 Geiger and Marsden performed series
of experiments under the direction of Rutherford
which led to the planetary or nuclear model of
atom.
Rutherford concluded that the atom must be largely
empty space, with the positive charge and most of its
mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center. In his
model much lighter electrons orbited the nucleus.

Atom
• Matter is made up of very small particles called atoms
• Each atom has a very small and very dense core
called nucleus. Most of the mass of atom is contained
in the nucleus
• The electrons move in orbits around the nucleus.
• There are a lot of empty spaces within atom
• A nucleus consists of a number of protons and
neutrons.
• Protons and neutrons also known as nucleons.
• A proton has a unit positive charge.
•  A neutron is an uncharged particle of about the
same mass as the proton.
• An atom is neutral because it contains an equal
number of negatively charged electrons. So the
net charge is zero.
e
n e
e
p n p n
p p n
p
e n n
e

Helium

Lithium
Nuclide
A nuclide is an atom of a particular structure. Each element has
nucleus with a specific number of protons.

Nuclide notation
A = nucleon number (mass number)
Z = proton number (atomic number)
X = chemical symbol of the element

Example
Proton number (atomic number) of carbon = 6, carbon nucleus
has 6 protons. The nucleon number (mass number) of carbon is
12. So the number of neutrons in carbon nucleus is 12 – 6 = 6
Proton number (atomic number)
Proton number, Z, is defined as the number of protons
in a nucleus.
The number of electrons = the number of protons
An element is identified by its proton number
 
Nucleon number (mass number)
Nucleon number, A is defined as the total number of
protons and neutrons in a nucleus.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms with the same proton (atomic)
number but different nucleon (mass) number.
Example: Hydrogen
deuterium
tritium

Some isotopes exist naturally. Isotopes can also be

made artificially.
 Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random disintegration
(decay) of an unstable nucleus accompanied by the emission
of energetic particles or photons.

• The nuclei of some atoms are unstable. The nucleus of an

unstable atom will decay to become more stable by emitting
ionising radiation in the form of a particle or
electromagnetic radiation.

• Random process means there is no way to tell which

nucleus will decay, and cannot predict when it is going to
decay.
.
 
• A spontaneous process means the process is not
triggered by any external factors such as
temperature of pressure

There are three types of ionising radiation that is

alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ).
Characteristics of alpha beta and gamma

Characteristic Alpha (α) Beta (β) Gamma (γ)

Nature Helium nuclei or Electrons, Electromagnetic
2 p and 2 n radiation.
Mass 4 1/2000 0
Charge +2e -e Neutral
Speed Slow Fast Speed of light
Ionizing ability High Medium Low
Penetrating Low Medium High
power
Stopped by A few cm of air or a A few mm of A few cm of lead
piece of paper aluminium foil
Deflected by
electric and Yes Yes No
magnetic fields
Detectors for radioactive emissions
Radioactive emissions can be detected with the help of
Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube), gold leaf electroscope,
cloud chamber and spark counter.
Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube)
Safety precautions in handling radioactive
substances
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation can all damage living
cells. Alpha particles, due to their strong ability to ionise
other particles, are particularly dangerous to human tissue.
Gamma radiation is dangerous because of its high
penetrating power. However cells have repair mechanisms
that make ordinary levels of radiation relatively harmless.

Radioactive substances must

always be handled with the
correct procedures to prevent
harmful effects to people and
the environment.
Safety precaution for handling radioactive materials
include:
• Use forceps or tongs for handling radioactive sources –
don’t hold them directly.

• Do not point radioactive sources at living tissues.

• Store radioactive materials in lead-lined containers –
and lock containers away securely.
• Wear laboratory coats, long pants, closed-toe footwear
and gloves when entering radioactive place.

• Stronger radioactive sources should be handled with

robotic control systems behind steel, concrete, lead or
thick glass panels.
• Check the surrounding area for radiation levels above
the normal background levels.

Background radiation
The radioactive radiation present around the environment
because of radioactive materials in the environment.
Background radiation is always present due to natural
radioactivity in the ground, bricks or buildings, rocks and
cosmic radiation (radiation comes from stars and sun).
Radioactive decay
Radioactive decay is a self disintegrating process which an
unstable nucleus emits nuclear radiation like alpha beta or
gamma so as to become stable.

• When a radioactive nucleus decays, its nucleus breaks

up, emits an alpha particle or beta particle and energy, and
forms a new atom of a different element.

• A parent nuclide X changes into a daughter nuclide Y.

Alpha decay
When a nucleus emits alpha particle, the atomic number
decreases by 2 units and it mass number decreases by 4
units. And high amount of energy released.
Beta decay
When a nucleus emits a beta particle, the mass number
does not change but the atomic number increases by 1.
and high amount of energy released.
Gamma decay
Gamma emission does not change the structure of the
nucleus, it just makes the nucleus more stable. Gamma rays
are emitted at the same time together with either an alpha or
beta particle. When a nucleus ejects an alpha or beta
particle, there is often some excess energy produced which
will be released as gamma rays.
Half –life
The half-life T1/2 of a radioactive substance is the time
for half of the radioactive nuclei to decay.

All radioactive substances decay with the same pattern,

as shown in the graphs below.
The graph shows that amount of substance decrease rapidly
at first and then more and more slowly. We cannot say when
the last atom will decay. Different radioactive substances
decay at different rates some much faster than others.
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into
two lighter nuclei, when the nucleus of an atom is
bombarded with a neutron.

The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to

split into two (or more) nuclei that are lighter than the
parent nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy during
the process.
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to
form a heavier nucleus, releasing a vast amount of energy
during the process.
 

Nuclear fusion is believed to be the process by which

energy is released by the Sun. When two hydrogen-2
nuclei moving at high speeds collide, they can join
together to produce heavier nucleus. A large amount of
energy is released.
A hydrogen bomb uses the principle of nuclear fusion for
its design.
Example from past paper

2
Alpha particle in heavier than beta particle. Because alpha particle
consist of 2 proton and 2 neutron, but beta particle consist of 1
electron.
Alpha particle has less penetrating power than beta particle.
Alpha particle has more ionising power than beta particle.

To emit alpha particle 2proton and 2 neutron is needed but tritium

contain only 1 proton.
Beta particles can’t penetrate glass, cloth or paper. If inhaled, it leaves
the body relatively quickly.
Half life is the time taken to reduce the radioactivity half of its initial
activity of decay. After half time half of the nuclei decays.
Initial activity =1200. half activity = 600 and time on 600 activity is 13
years. Again half of 600 =300 activity happens in 26 years. So, after
every 13 years it decay reduces to half.

13 years
From the graph is it seen that count rate reduces to 400 counts per minute
after 20 years. So the manufacturer’s claim is correct.
When nuclear fission of uranium occurs, it hits by an neutron and
divided into two daughter nucleus produces three neutrons and lots
of energy.
228

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