Research Methodology: Research Methods & Data Collection Methods

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
Ph.D Program
RESEARCH METHODS &

DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D
MIBA Dr.William@ Sui Reng Liana
Types of Research
01 Descriptive Research
02 Exploratory Research
03 Causal Research

MIBA
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research refers to research that provides an

accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual,
situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known as
statistical research.
These studies are a means of discovering new meaning,
describing what exists, determining the frequency with which
something occurs, and categorizing information.
In short descriptive research deals with everything
that can be counted and studied, which has an
impact of the lives of the people it deals with.
For example: Finding the most frequent disease that affects the
children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to
do to prevent that disease thus, more people will live a healthy
life. Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D
MIBA
Descriptive Research
• “Describes” something which could be a phenomenon, a

current situation or the characteristic of a group of
organisations, people, etc.
• Answers the question of who, what, where, when and

how of a particular issue or situation

MIBA
Cross-sectional or Longitudinal
Descriptive studies can be classified as either cross-

sectional or longitudinal.

MIBA
Cross-Sectional Study
• The data is collected just once (at a particular time) to

enable the researcher to answer the research questions
• Can be collected over a period of a few days, weeks
or months
• Most frequently used in exploratory and descriptive
research

MIBA
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a

problem that has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research
helps determine the best research design, data collection method
and selection of subjects.
•The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for

decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant
insight into a given situation
•Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the

population at large.
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• Undertaken when a researcher intends to explore

something new or clarify ambiguous problems in a
particular situation
• Certain problem of interest exists and it has not been
clearly defined
• Useful in generating a more clearly defined (or
redefined) problem and suggesting a well-supported
hypothesis

MIBA
•Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on

secondary research such as reviewing available
literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches such as
informal discussions with consumers, employees,
management or competitors, and more formal
approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups,
projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.

MIBA
Causal Research
• Research approach where the researcher investigates

the cause and effect relationship (a.k.a. explanatory
study)
• Can experiment on manipulating the hypothesised
independent variable on the dependent variable

MIBA
Causal Research
• Seeks to establish the cause and effect relationship among the

variables of interest
• Research approach where the researcher investigates the cause
and effect relationship (a.k.a. explanatory study)
• Can experiment on manipulating the hypothesised independent
variable on the dependent variable

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Unit of Analysis
• Refers to the subject that is being studied in the research

• May take the form of individuals, groups of people,
objects, certain department within an organisation or the
entire organisation itself as well as culture and countries
• Most of the time, the unit of analysis is determined by the
research questions

MIBA
Methods of Data Collection
 The task of data collection begins when research

problem has been defined and research design has
been set out for the study.
 Secondary and primary research
 The methods of collecting primary and secondary data
differ since primary data is to be originally collected,
while in the case of secondary data, the data collection
is simply a compilation from the available published
source(s).
MIBA
Data Collection Method:
Qualitative vs Quantitative
 The method of collecting qualitative data (description

of meanings rather than statistical inferences) explores
attitudes, behaviour and experiences through methods
such as interviews or focus groups.
 The method of collecting quantitative data generates
statistics (rather than meaning) through the use of large-
scale survey research, using methods such as
questionnaires or structured interviews.

MIBA
Data Collection Method:
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Quantitative
Data involves “words” Data involves “numbers”.
Research is inductive Research is deductive
Researcher part of the situation or

Researcher an objective observer.
problem.
Interpretive analysis Use of statistical analysis
Provide a depth and richness of data Allows for generalisation

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Observation
A technique that involves systematically selecting,

watching and recording behaviour and characteristics of
living beings, objects or phenomena.

MIBA
Observation (cont.)
The researcher should keep certain things in mind:

• What should be observed?
• How should the observations be recorded? Or how
should the accuracy of observations be ensured?

MIBA
Types of Observation
• Observation is characterised by careful definition of

units to be observed, the style of recording the
observed information, standardised conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of
observation. This is known as structured observation.
• On the other hand, if the observation is to take place

without these characteristics being sought in advance,
it is known as unstructured observation.

MIBA
Survey Method
Survey is a structured way of collecting standardized

information from individuals using a questionnaire.

MIBA
Survey Method
Basically 4 types of survey are used by researches:

• Personal interview (face to face)
• Mail survey
• Telephone survey
• Internet (on-line) survey

MIBA
Personal Interview
(face to face)
• Personal interview consists of

– administering structured questionnaires where
trained interviewers ask fixed choice questions in a
consistent format.

MIBA
Personal Interview (face to face)
(cont.)
Tips to ensure reliable, credible and unbiased responses:

• Must be well-organised and knowledgeable in the subject
• Should ask the same question without change in wording
• Should ask every question in the same context
• Should explain the purpose of the research to respondents
• Should ensure that each question is understood by all the
respondents

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(cont.)
• Should write down the responses in a standardized

form
• Should try to extract the unbiased response
• Should be aware of the impact of his or her behaviour
on the response

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(cont.)
Advantages:
• The researcher can explain and clarify it to get the
true and correct response, if problem arises
• Different measurement tools can be used in one
survey
• Findings of the research can be generalized
• Probing can be used to collect detailed information
• Respondent’s body language can be considered in
helping to interpret responses/comments

MIBA
Mail Survey
• Most popular method

• Uses envelop and stamp, and self-addressed stamped
return envelop
• Enables you to choose a large sample

MIBA
Mail Survey (cont.)
Advantages:
• Low cost
• Convenience
• No bias responses
• Sampling–internal link

MIBA
Mail Survey (cont.)
Disadvantages:
• Very low response rate
• Ability of respondent to answer survey

MIBA
Telephone Survey
Interviewer collects the relevant information from the

target respondents through telephone conversation.

MIBA
Telephone Survey (cont.)
Helpful tips to locate the respondent:

• Repeat calls might be necessary if the respondents
work in organizations and the only channel to reach
them is through their secretaries
• As the researcher may not know the name and
designation of the respondents, there is every
possibility of interviewing the wrong person

MIBA
• In a telephone survey, the interviewer collects the

relevant information from the target respondents
through telephone conversation.
• The researcher can intimate the respondents in
advance informing them about the telephone
interview on the subject matter.

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Making them agree to take part:

• The purpose of the call should be stated clearly to the
respondents just like the introductory letter of a postal
questionnaire.
• Generally, respondents listen to the introduction
before they decide to participate or refuse.
• The researcher should motivate the respondents in the
right way if they raise objections about why they
could not participate in the survey.
MIBA
Advantages:
• It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method
• It is faster than other methods of survey. It is a quick
way of obtaining the information
• It is relatively cheaper
• It can cover reasonably large numbers of people or
organisations with wide geographic coverage

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• High-response rate—keep going till the required

number
• Recall is easy; call-backs are simple and economical
• Interviewer can explain requirements more easily
• Replies can be recorded without causing
embarrassment to respondents

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Disadvantages:
• This kind of survey is often connected with selling.
• The questionnaire must be short and questions must be
simple and straightforward, otherwise respondents may
refuse to answer them.
• Surveys are restricted to respondents who have
telephone facilities.
• Repeat calls are inevitable—average 2.5 calls to get
someone.
MIBA
• Time is wasted.
• Respondent has little time to think before answering
each question over the phone.
• It is not possible to use visual aids.
• Too many questions or disturbance in the telephone
connection may cause irritation to the respondents.
• Not suitable for intensive surveys where
comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.

MIBA
Internet (on-line) Survey
The questionnaire can be distributed as mail messages

through attachment or posted as World Wide Web
forms in the internet or distributed via publicly available
computers in high-traffic areas.

MIBA
Internet (on-line) Survey (cont.)
Advantages:
• Cost saving
• Ease of editing/analysis
• Faster transmission time
• Easy use of pre-letters
• Higher response rate
• More candid responses
• Potentially quicker response time with wider
magnitude of coverage

MIBA
Internet (on-line) Survey (cont.)
Disadvantages:
• Sample demographic limitations
• Lower levels of confidentiality
• Layout and presentation issues
• Additional orientation/instructions
• Response rate

MIBA
Comparison among different survey
methods
Cost Mail survey Telephonic Internet Personal interview
survey survey
Cost Often lowest Moderate Moderate Usually highest
Ability to probe No personal No personal No personal Greatest opportunity for
contact or contact or contact or observation, building
observation observation observation rapport and additional
probing
Responden’s Yes Perhaps, but Yes Perhaps, if interview
ability to usually no time is prearranged with
complete at respondent
own
convenience
Interview bias No Some, No Greatest chance
perhaps due
to voice
inflection
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methods
Cost Mail survey Telephonic Internet Personal interview
survey survey
Ability to decide who Least Some No Greatest
actually responds to
the questions
Complex questions Least Somewhat Least More suitable

suitable suitable suitable
Visual aids Little No High Greatest opportunity

opportunity opportunity opportunity
Potential negative ‘Junk mail’ ‘Junk calls’ No Invasion of privacy

respondent reaction

MIBA
methods
Cost Mail survey Telephonic Internet Personal
survey survey interview
respondent reaction Least Some in the Least Greatest
‘Junk mail’ ‘Junk selection of
calls’ Invasion of time to call
privacy Interviewer
control over
interview
environment
Time lag between Greatest Least Greatest May be

soliciting considered if a
and receiving large
response area is involved

MIBA
methods
Cost Mail survey Telephonic Internet survey Personal
survey interview
Suitable Simple, Some opportunity Openended Greatest
types of mostly for openended questions especially opportunity for
questions dichotomous Questions if the interview is open-ended
(yes/no) and especially recorded High questions
multiple if the interview is opportunity for open-
choice recorded ended questions
Requirement Least Medium Least Greatest
for technical
skills in
conducting
interview
Response Low Usually high Low High

rate
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Qualitative Techniques
Sometimes, the research objective calls for more

indirect methods of questioning, either because normal
quantitative surveys are inadequate or inappropriate.

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In-Depth Interview
• A qualitative research technique that involves

conducting intensive individual interviews with a
small number of respondents to explore their
perspectives on a particular idea, programme or
situation.

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In-Depth Interview (cont.)
Limitations and pitfalls:

• Biased due to their stake in the programme
• Interviews can be a time-intensive evaluation activity
• Must be appropriately trained
• Generalisations about the results usually could not be
made

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Focus Group Discussion
A carefully planned and moderated discussion among

individuals having common characteristics to obtain the
meaningful information on the area of interest in a non-
threatening environment.

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Projective Techniques
Used by psychologists to use projections of respondents

for inferring about underlying motives, urges or
intentions.

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Projective Techniques (cont.)
Important projective techniques:

• Word association
• Sentence completion
• Verbal projection

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Collection of Secondary Data
Refers to information that has been already gathered by

someone (individual or agencies) and readily available
to the researcher.

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Collection of Secondary Data (cont.)
Important for any business research due to the following

reasons:
•Entirely appropriate and wholly adequate to draw
conclusions and answer the question or solve the problem.
•Far cheaper to collect secondary data than to obtain
primary data.
•Time involved in searching secondary sources is much
less.

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• Can yield more accurate data than that obtained

through primary research
• Plays an important role in the exploratory phase of
the research when the task at hand is to define the
research problem and to generate hypotheses
• Data can be extremely useful both in defining the
population and in structuring the sample to be taken

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Secondary data should possess the following characteristics:

• Reliability of data
• Suitability of data
• Adequacy of data

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Selection of Appropriate Methods of Data
Collection
• Nature, scope and object of enquiry.

• Availability of funds
• Time factor
• Precision required

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Ethical Considerations
The researcher should be concerned about whether

one’s procedures of collecting information are likely to
cause any physical or emotional harm to the
participants.

MIBA
Ethical Considerations (cont.)
These harm may be caused by;

• Violating participants’ right to privacy by posing
sensitive questions or by gaining access to personal
data;
• Observing the behaviour of participants without their
being aware;
• Making public personal information which participants
would want to keep private; and
• Failing to observe/respect certain cultural values,
traditions or taboos valued by the participants.
MIBA
Ethical Considerations (cont.)
Recommended methods for dealing with these issues:

• Obtaining the respondent’s consent before the study
begins;
• Not exploring sensitive issues before a good
relationship has been established;
• Ensuring the confidentiality; and
• Learning enough about the culture of participants.

MIBA

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RESEARCH

RESEARCH METHODS &

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Descriptive research refers to research that provides an

• “Describes” something which could be a phenomenon, a

• Answers the question of who, what, where, when and

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Descriptive studies can be classified as either cross-

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• The data is collected just once (at a particular time) to

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Exploratory research is a type of research conducted for a

•The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for

•Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the

• Undertaken when a researcher intends to explore

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

•Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• Research approach where the researcher investigates

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• Seeks to establish the cause and effect relationship among the

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• Refers to the subject that is being studied in the research

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

 The task of data collection begins when research

 The method of collecting qualitative data (description

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Data involves “words” Data involves “numbers”.

Research is inductive Research is deductive

Researcher part of the situation or

Interpretive analysis Use of statistical analysis

Provide a depth and richness of data Allows for generalisation

A technique that involves systematically selecting,

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

The researcher should keep certain things in mind:

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• Observation is characterised by careful definition of

• On the other hand, if the observation is to take place

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Survey is a structured way of collecting standardized

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Basically 4 types of survey are used by researches:

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• Personal interview consists of

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Tips to ensure reliable, credible and unbiased responses:

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• Should write down the responses in a standardized

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• Most popular method

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Interviewer collects the relevant information from the

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Helpful tips to locate the respondent:

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

• In a telephone survey, the interviewer collects the

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D

Making them agree to take part:

Dr.Sui Reng Liana Ph.D