Water Treatment



School of Civil and

Monroe L. Weber-Shirk Environmental Engineering
 Where are we going?
 Unit processes* designed to
Particles and pathogens
 remove _________________________
dissolved chemicals
 remove __________ ___________
pathogens
 inactivate ____________
 *Unit process: a process that is used in similar
ways in many different applications
 Unit Processes Designed to Remove Particulate
Matter
 Screening
Empirical design
 Sedimentation
 Coagulation/flocculation Theories developed later
 Filtration
 Conventional Surface Water
Treatment
Raw water
Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge
 Screening

 Removes large solids

 logs
 branches
 rags
 fish
 Simple process
 may incorporate a mechanized trash
removal system
 Protects pumps and pipes in WTP
 Sedimentation

 the oldest form of water treatment

 uses gravity to separate particles from water
 often follows coagulation and flocculation
 Sedimentation: Effect of the
particle concentration
 Dilute suspensions
Particles act independently
 Concentrated suspensions
Particle-particle interactions are significant
Particles may collide and stick together
(form flocs)
Particle flocs may settle more quickly
At very high concentrations particle-
particle forces may prevent further
consolidation
 Sedimentation:
Particle Terminal Fall Velocity
 p  particle volume
 F  ma
Identify forces projected
Fb Ap  particle cross sectional area
Fd  Fb  W  0
Fd ρ p  particle density

pp g ρw  water density

W  _______
g  acceleration due to gravity
C D  drag coefficient
Fb = "________
pr wg
Vt  particle terminal velocity

Fd  C D AP  w
Vt 2 W 4 gd ( r p - r w )
Vt =
2 3 CD rw
 Drag Coefficient on a Sphere
d 2 g   p  w  4 gd ( r p - r w )
Vt  Vt =
18 3 CD rw
1000 Stokes Law
Drag Coefficient

100

10

0.1
Vt d 
24 Re 
Cd  
Re Reynolds Number
turbulent
laminar turbulent boundary
 Reynolds Number for a Floc

 Find the diameter of the largest floc that

falls with laminar flow characteristics
 Density of water 1000 kg/m3
 Viscosity of water 0.001 kg/(m s)
1
Vt d  4 gd   p   w 
Re  fluid properties Vt 
 3 CD w
45
What is the coefficient of drag? _____

For flocs CD=45/Re because flocs aren’t spheres

 Laminar Flow Boundary

4 gd   p   w  1.6 9
d w d
8
3 CD w 1.4

terminal velocity (mm/s)

V

particle diameter (mm)

R 1.2 7
 1
6
2/3 5
  0.8
4
  0.6
R Turbulent 3
d  0.4 2
 4 g 

3 CD
  p  w  w  0.2
0
Laminar 1
0
  1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25
particle specific gravity

Flocs larger than ≈1 mm have turbulent flow characteristics

The flow field around most flocs (water treatment) is laminar
 Sedimentation Basin

 long rectangular
basins
Settling zone

Outlet zone
 4-6 hour

Inlet zone
retention time
 3-4 m deep Sludge zone

 max of 12 m
wide
 max of 48 m Sludge out
long
 Sedimentation Basin:
Critical Path
Horizontal velocity

Outlet zone
Vh

Inlet zone
Q flow rate Vc H
Vh 
A Sludge zone
WH
Vertical velocity
L
Sludge out

Vc = terminal velocity that just barely ______________

gets captured
H
What is Vc for this sedimentation tank? Vc 

 Sedimentation Basin:
Importance of Tank Surface Area
  residence time

 Time in tank   WHL  volume of tank
Q
A s  top surface area of tank
H HQ Q Q W
Vc    
  LW As
Vh H
Vc

L
Want a _____
small Vc, ______
large As, _______ large .
small H, _______
Suppose water were flowing up through a sedimentation tank. What Q
would be the velocity of a particle that is just barely removed? Vc = A
s
 Lamella

 Sedimentation tanks are

commonly divided into
layers of shallow tanks
(lamella)
 The flow rate can be
increased while still
obtaining excellent
particle removal
Lamella decrease distance particle
has to fall in order to be removed
 Settling zone
Design Criteria for

Outlet
zone
zone
Inlet
Sedimentation Tanks Sludge zone

 _______________________________
Minimal turbulence (inlet baffles)
 _______________________________
Uniform velocity (small dimensions normal to velocity)
 _______________________________
No scour of settled particles
 _______________________________
Slow moving particle collection system
 _______________________________
Q/As must be small (to capture small particles)
 Sedimentation of Small
Particles?
 How could we increase the sedimentation
rate of small particles? Increase d (stick
particles together)

d g   p   w  Increase density difference

2 Increase g (centrifuge)

Vt 
18 (dissolved air flotation)

Decrease viscosity
(increase temperature)
 Particle/particle interactions

 Electrostatic repulsion
 In most surface waters, colloidal surfaces are
negatively charged
stable suspension
 like charges repel __________________
 van der Waals force
 an attractive force
 decays more rapidly with distance than the electrostatic
force
 is a stronger force at very close distances
Electrostatic
Energy Barrier
 Increase kinetic energy of
Layer of
particles
counter ions
increase temperature
stir
+ +++++ + ++
++++ + +
+ ++++ + + ++
++ +
 Decrease magnitude of energy
barrier
change the charge of the particles
van der introduce positively charged
Waals particles
 Coagulation

 Coagulation is a physical-chemical process

whereby particles are destabilized
 Several mechanisms
adsorption of cations onto negatively charged
particles
decrease the thickness of the layer of counter
ions
sweep coagulation
interparticle bridging
 Coagulation Chemistry

 The standard coagulant for water supply is

Alum [Al2(SO4)3*14.3H2O]
 Typically 5 mg/L to 50 mg/L alum is used
 The chemistry is complex with many
possible species formed such as AlOH+2,
Al(OH)2+, and Al7(OH)17+4
 The primary reaction produces Al(OH)3
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O2Al(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO4-2
pH = -log[H+]
 Coagulation Chemistry

 Aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3] forms

amorphous, gelatinous flocs that are heavier
than water
 The flocs look like snow in water
 These flocs entrap particles as the flocs
settle (sweep coagulation)
 Coagulant introduction with
rapid mixing
 The coagulant must be mixed with the water
 Retention times in the mixing zone are
typically between 1 and 10 seconds
 Types of rapid mix units
pumps
hydraulic jumps
flow-through basins with many baffles
In-line blenders
 Flocculation

 Coagulation has destabilized the particles

by reducing the energy barrier
 Now we want to get the particles to collide
 We need relative motion between particles
Brownian motion is too slow (except for tiny
particles)
_________
Differential _____________
sedimentation rates
Turbulence
__________ shears the water
 Flocculation

 Turbulence provided by
gentle stirring
 Turbulence also keeps large
flocs from settling so they
can grow even larger!
 High sedimentation rate of
large flocs results in many
collisions!
 Retention time of 10 - 30
minutes
 Flocculator Design (Prior to 1992):
The “shear is dominant” assumption
Drag coefficient = 2 for flat
 Velocity gradient (G) plate perpendicular to flow
 P is power input to Cd V A
3 Cd V 2 A
P Fd 
 mechanical paddles 2 2
 Hydraulic (head loss) P   ghl Q
 Recommended G and G values G
P
 G – 20 to 100 /s V
 G – 20,000 to 150,000 
 Based on the (incorrect) assumption that the   Q
primary collision mechanism was fluid shear
These values were obtained empirically, so even though
the theory was wrong the values might be right!
 Improved Model Development

 Transport mechanisms
 Diffusion
 Shear
 Differential Sedimentation
 Monodisperse vs Heterodisperse suspensions
 Rectilinear models ignored near field effects of
hydrodynamic and electrostatic repulsion and van
der Waals attraction
 Curvilinear models incorporated these near field
effects
 Heterodisperse, Rectilinear
Flocculation
dnk 1
dt
 rk  
2 i  j k
  i, j  ni n j     i, k  ni nk
all i

Change in number
concentration of Number
size k particles concentration of
size i particles
We double Collision frequency [1/cm3]
counted the between two
formation of particles of sizes i
these particles and j
[cm3/s]
 Rectilinear Collision Frequency –
Transport Mechanisms
2kT 1 1 
Brownian motion  Br  i, j       di  d j 
3  di d j 
g  cm 2
k is Boltzmann’s constant 1.38 x 10-16
s2  K
1
 Sh  i, j    di  d j  G
3
Shear
6
G is the average velocity gradient 1/s
g
 DS  i, j     p   w   di  d j  di  d j
3
Differential Sedimentation
72 
Assumes laminar flow g 2 
 DS  i, j     p   w  di  d j  di  d j 
2
d 2 g   p  w  2
Vt 
18 18 4
Add them all up   i, j    Br  i, j    Sh  i, j    DS  i, j 
 Differential Sedimentation

Rectilinear model Curvilinear model

aj
Use trajectory
analysis to get
Critical path

ai

ai + a j xc
 Herterodisperse, Curvilinear
Flocculation
 Hydrodynamic interactions prevent collisions -
water between particles must move out of the way
 Van der Waals attractive force promotes collisions
- become significant at small separation distances
 Electrostatic repulsion prevents collisions –
diffuse layer of ions rich in those with charge
opposite to that of the surfaces is induced in the
fluid surrounding each particle
 Dominant Collision Mechanisms

100
Plot conditions
G = 10/s
T = 20°C
p = 1.1 g/cm3 10
dj (mm)

1
This model assumes Differential Sedimentation
Fluid Shear
floc density is Brownian Motion
independent of floc 0.1
size 0.1 1 10 100
di (mm)
 Curvilinear Simplified Conclusions

 Shear is only important for particles within

a factor of 5 of the same size
 Diffusion is important if the small particle
is less than 1 m and the large particle is
less than about 20 m
 Differential sedimentation is important if
one of the particles is greater than 20 m
 1
Application of Results 
2 i  j k
  i, j  ni n j

 Increasing the concentration of large particles will

increase the collision rate
 Turbulence can be used to keep large particles in
suspension
 Need high fluid velocities at bottom of tank
 Could use grid or jet turbulence
 Recirculate large particles by providing upflow zone
 No need to try to optimize the fluid shear mechanism
since the differential sedimentation mechanism is
more efficient
 Mechanical Flocculators

 Mechanical flocculators are preferred in the

Global North
Speed of the mechanically operated paddles can
be varied (but do operators vary this?)
 Disadvantages
Motors, speed controllers, gear boxes (to
reduce speed), and bearings may not be
maintainable
Require electricity
 Hydraulic Flocculators

 Flocculation parameters are a function of flow and

thus cannot be adjusted independently
 Head loss is often significant
 Cleaning may be difficult, but appropriate designs
can accommodate cleaning
 Types
 Vertical flow
 Horizontal flow
 Tapered (to reduce shear as flocs grow larger?)
 Gravel bed flocculators (related to filters!)
 Potential Research Project

 I don’t know if anyone has designed a

better flocculator based on this new
understanding of the importance of keeping
large particles in suspension
 But there is at least one existing design that
keeps particles in suspension
 100

Sludge Blanket
10

dj (m)
1 Differential Sedimentation
Fluid Shear
Brownian Motion

0.1

Flocculator/Sedimentation Tank
0.1 1 10 100
di (m)

Retention time 1-3 hours Critical velocity

Turbidity less than 900 NTU Overflow channel

Differential 36 - 100 m/day

sedimentation causes
large flocs to collide Water inlet
with small Brownian Water Outlet
particles

High velocities keep

Sludge blanket
particles moving up

Raw water with alum (Brownian Desludging valve

motion)
 Flocculator Design

 Keep particles suspended

 requires tanks designed to resuspend particles that settle
 Keep shear levels low so that particles don’t break apart
 We need some data for appropriate shear levels
 Shear =_________________________
velocity gradient x viscosity
 Use the velocity gradient G that is recommended for
flocculator design and calculate the shear!
 The existing designs were based on the wrong theory, yet
they work.
 How can we reconcile this?
 Basic Mechanism of Bed Load
Sediment Transport
 drag force exerted by fluid
flow on individual grains V
h
 retarding force exerted by force of drag will vary with time
the bed on grains at the Fd
interface
 particle moves when
resultant passes through
(or above) point of support
Fg 
Grains: usually we mean incoherent sands,
gravels, and silt, but also sometimes we point of support
include cohesive soils (clays) that form larger
particles (aggregates)
 Threshold of Movement
4
Force on particle due to gravity Fg  g r 3
3
Force on particle due to shear stress Fshear   or
2

 or 2
We expect movement when  tan 
4
g r 3
2d 3
 o  g tan  
3 4 3
o 2 F g  g r
 tan  3
gd 3
Fshear   or 2
important dimensionless parameter
 Shields Diagram (1936)


Suspension
o
 Shields  Saltation
 gd


0.056

No movement Threshold of
 movement
  u*d  
hf Re d 
u*  gh 
L Laminar flow of bed Turbulent flow of bed
 G and  and biggest particles
du Assume floc density is 1100 kg/m3
 0    G How large were the flocs that are kept in
dy
suspension given empirical design for G?
o G  = 0.001 kg/(m s)
 Shields   Shields 
 gd  gd
G  = 100 kg/m3
d
 g  Shields g = 9.8 m/s2

0.001
kg  
20 to 175
1 Shields = 0.05
  
 m s  s
d d  0.41mm  3.6mm
 kg  m
100 3  9.8 2   0.05 
 m  s 
 Recommended G and G values:
Turbidity or Color Removal

Velocity 0*
gradient (G) 
Type (1/s) G (s) (Pa)
without 20-100 20,000- 1000-1500 0.020-0.1
solids 150,000
recirculatio
n
With solids 75-175 125,000- 1100-1700 0.075-0.175
recirculatio 200,000
*n Estimated from G assuming viscosity of 0.001 kg/(m s)
 Suggested Design Process

 residence time of about 30 minutes

 Maximize vertical mixing to keep heavy
flocs in suspension
 Keep shear levels less than 0.2 Pa* to avoid
floc breakup
 Or perhaps 0.2 Pa is required to keep heavy
floc in suspension
*We need some research to see if this shear level is correct!
 Vertical-flow Baffled Flocculator
0
u* 

 0   u*2 u*  V f
d
H
 0   fV 2
0.1
V
 D 0.05
f  Cp  0.04
 l 0.03
0.02

0
friction factor


0.015
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
D

V
laminar
0.002
0.001
0.0008
0.0004

f
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
0.01 smooth

1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08

Re

0.2 Pa m K180 bend= 2.5 - 4

V  0.1
 kg  s V2
1000 3  0.02 hex K
 m  2g
 Scaling floc sed down to POU

 Need to reduce fluid velocities to avoid turning

the sedimentation tank into a CMFR Completely
(____________ ___________________)
mixed flow reactor
 Batch may work best to ensure good
sedimentation
 Consider recycling flocs from previous batches
 Continuous flow could take advantage of big flocs
(upflow flocculation/sedimentation)
 Coagulants

 Inorganic
Aluminum Sulfate (alum)
Ferric chloride
 Organic
Chitosan
Moringa oleifera
 Dosage – 10 to 100 mg/L based on “jar”
tests
 Jar Test

 Mimics the rapid mix, coagulation,

flocculation, sedimentation treatment steps
in a beaker
 Allows operator to test the effect of
different coagulant dosages or of different
coagulants
 Suggests a batch technique for POU
turbidity removal
 Upflow Flocculator/Sedimentation
Tank particle capture

 What is the size of the smallest

36 - 100 m/day
Water inlet

floc that can be captured by this

tank with critical velocity of 100
m/day?
 We need a measure of real water
treatment floc terminal velocities
 Research…
 Physical Characteristics of Floc:
The Floc Density Function
 Tambo, N. and Y. Watanabe (1979). "Physical
characteristics of flocs--I. The floc density
function and aluminum floc." Water Research
13(5): 409-419.
 Measured floc density based on sedimentation
velocity (Our real interest!)
 Flocs were prepared from kaolin clay and alum at
neutral pH
 Floc diameters were measured by projected area
 Floc Density Function:
Dimensional Analysis!
 Floc density is a function of  floc   w
__________
floc size w
 Make the density dimensionless d floc
 Make the floc size d particle
dimensionless
 Write the functional   floc   w   d floc 
   f  
relationship  w   d particle 
 After looking at the data n
  w   d floc 
d

conclude that a power law  floc

   a  
relationship is appropriate  w   d particle 
 nd
  floc   w   d floc 
Model Results 
 w
  a 
  d particle



 For clay assume dparticle was 3.5 m (based on

Tambo and Watanabe)
 a is 10 and nd is -1.25 (obtained by fitting the
dimensionless model to their data)
 The coefficient of variation for predicted
dimensionless density is
 0.2 for dfloc/dparticle of 30 and
 0.7 for dfloc/dparticle of 1500
clay/alum
 The model is valid for __________flocs in the
size range 0.1 mm to 3 mm
 Additional Model Limitation

 This model is simplistic and doesn’t include

 Density of clay
 Ratio of alum concentration to clay concentration
 Method of floc formation
 Data doesn’t justify a more sophisticated model
 Are big flocs formed from a few medium sized
flocs or directly from many clay particles?
 Flocs that are formed from smaller flocs may tend to be
less dense than flocs that are formed from accumulation
of (alum coated) clay particles
 Model Results → Terminal Velocity
nd
  floc   w   d floc 
4 gd   p   w     a  
Vt  w
3 CD w    d particle 

45 Flocs aren’t spheres

Cd 
Re
nd
4 gVt  w  d floc  Vt d floc  w
Vt  d floc a  Re 
3 45  d particle
  

4 gt  w d floc  d floc
2

nd
45
Vt  a Cd 
 d particle  Vt d floc  w
3 45  
 Floc Density and Velocity
(Approximate)
nd
36 - 100 m/day g  d 2
4 t w floc  d floc 
Vt  a
Water inlet

3 45  d particle 
 
0.1 1000

floc terminal velocity (m/day)

  floc   w 
floc density

floc density
  0.01 100
  w 
Vt (m/day)

0.001 10
0.1 0.4 mm 1 10
 floc ______
1030 kg/m3 floc diameter (mm)
 Flocculation/Sedimentation:
Deep vs. Shallow
 Compare the expected performance of shallow and deep
horizontal flow sedimentation tanks assuming they have
the same critical velocity (same Q and same surface area)

More opportunities to deeper

Expect the _______
______
collide with other tank to perform better!
particles by _________
differential
____________
sedimentation or
Brownian motion
________________
 Flocculation/Sedimentation:
Batch vs. Upflow

 Compare the expected performance of a batch

(bucket) and an upflow clarifier assuming
they have the same critical velocity
 How could you improve the performance of
the batch flocculation/sedimentation tank?
36 - 100 m/day
Water inlet
 Frictional Losses in Straight Pipes

0.1

 D 0.05
f  Cp  0.04
 l  0.03
0.02
friction factor

0.015
0.01

0.008
0.006
0.004
D
laminar
0.002
0.001
0.0008
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
0.00005
0.01 smooth

1E+03 1E+04 1E+05 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08

Re