Fundamentals of Measurement

METROLOGY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 PREFACE
In view of measurement , I have taken up an initiative to illustrate briefly
some of the important aspects which people usually come across during
measurement and instrument handling. The effort shows various
methodologies , terminologies with their practical importance . I have also
catered various methods in which measurement errors/confusions are
observed , my motive is to show / illustrate easy way of catering measuring
fundamentals and their proper usages . I have tried to cover major points
which are usually observed in mass production related to reading drawings ,
understanding , drafting , providing decisions and handling of various
instruments. This chapter contracts emphasis on “Basic fundamentals” of all
measuring methodologies , their interferences with structural drawings
covering all nomenclatures which indirectly are related with any
measurement.
Hope this effort will help and support in production and quality related issues .

Metrology .
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Measurement Metrology

Introduction

Units Measurement

Angular Measurements

Limit Fit & Tolerance

Geometrical Symbol & Charts

Different Measuring Instruments

Screw Thread measurements

Measurement Terminology
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Lucknow
 The Greek philosopher Zeno proposed the idea that between
any two points in space there is a distance divisible by an
infinite number of progressively smaller units. His contention
was that it is impossible to traverse an infinite number of units,
and therefore impossible to know the distance between any
two points. This became one of the now famous “Zeno,s
Paradox.”
Like most human inventions, measurement was born out of
necessity-specifically, the necessity to record and relate
information about products, places, or parcels of land. At
inception, it was based on measuring instruments most readily
available to everyone-the parts of the body. This is still
discernible from the name of some of units of measurement
e.g. foot, hand and span.
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The development of measurement system has been refined in two
predominant systems- the Metric System and the English System.
English system is used by United States & few other nations where as
Metric system is used by most of nations in the world.
The current inch and meter are both based on a multiple of wavelengths
of monochromatic light. For example meter is equal to 1,650,763.73
wavelengths in a vacuum of the orange-red radiation of Krypton-86.
Table next gives the Latin prefixes for the metric system & their
equivalent amount of the associated unit. The same prefixes are used for
weight (grams), liquid (liter) and linear (meter).

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 Unit Prefixes
Metric Prefixes Symbol Multiples and Submultiples Factor
Metric Prefixes Symbol Multiples and Submultiples Factor
Exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
Exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
Peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
Peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109
Mega M 1,000,000 106
Mega M 1,000,000 106
Kilo k 1,000 103
Kilo k 1,000 103
Hecto h 100 102
Hecto h 100 102
Deca da 10 10
Deca da 10 10
Deci d 0.1 10-1
Deci d 0.1 10-1
Centi c 0.01 10-2
Centi c 0.01 10-2
Milli m 0.001 10 -3

Milli m 0.001 10-3

Micro µ 0.000001 10-6
Micro µ 0.000001 10-6
Nano n 0.000000001 10 -9

Nano n 0.000000001 10-9

Pico p 0.000000000001 10-12
Pico p 0.000000000001 10-12
Femto f 0.000000000000001 10-15

Femto f 0.000000000000001 10-15

Atto a 0.0000000000000000001 10-18
Atto a 0.0000000000000000001 10-18

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A ngular Measurements
Angle: The area between two converging lines.
Units: There are three Units of angle is used
1. Degrees
2. Radians
3. Grads
Degrees: The degree is equal to 1/360 of a complete circle. This is further sub divided into minutes & seconds. e.g.
1°(Degree) = 60’ (Minutes)
1’=60” (Seconds)
Conversion form degree to Degree, Minute & Seconds. (e.g. if the value is in 36.8275° & you need to convert it in Degree, Minute & Seconds)
Step-1 Keep the digit before decimal aside & label it with degree i.e. 36°---------------------------------a
Step II Subtract the “a” from main value i.e. 36.8275-36=0.8275.--------------------------------------------b
Step III Multiply “b” with 60 to get the minute i.e. 0.8275x60=49.65------------------------------------------c
Step IV Keep the digit before decimal aside & label it with minute i.e. 49’---------------------------------d
Step V Subtract the “d” from “c” i.e. 49.65-49=0.65-----------------------------------------------------------e
Step VI Multiply “e” with 60 to get second & round the digit & label it as seconds i.e.0.65X60=39 ------f

36.8275°= 36°49’39” (a°d’f”)

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 Conversion form DMS to Degree:
For example convert 30°30’30” in Degree
Step I - Keep the Degree aside i.e 30-----------------------------a
StepII- Divide minutes with 60 i.e.30÷60=0.5------------------b
StepIII- Divide Seconds with 3600 i.e. 30÷3600=0.008333---c
Step IV- Add a+b+c i.e.30+0.5+0.0083=30.508333

Note : Take digit up to 6 digit after decimal.

Radian: The radian is equal to an arc which is the same length as the radius it is projected from. For
example if the radius of an arch is 50 mm & length of the arc is 50 mm then it will be 1 radian.

1 radian is always equal to 57.2958°

To Convert Degree to radian , divide the degree value by 57.2958.

To Convert Radian to Degree multiply the radian value is multiplied by 57.2958.

Grads:
This is less common in use. This is very similar to the degree, with two exceptions. First there are 400
grads in a complete circle instead of 360 as in degrees. Grads have no sub units. This is always expressed
in decimal forms.
To convert grads to degree multiply by 0.9 (360÷400)
To convert degree to grad multiply by 1.111 (400÷360)
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Selection of Instruments for measurements:
There are many measuring instruments, some are different in function
& some are different in degree of accuracy. Those with the least degree
of accuracy are most frequently used.
N.B: Instruments those are least accurate does not means they are
inaccurate.
General thumb rule is that instruments used for measurements should
have the resolution up to 1/10th of the tolerance.

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 Tolerance
Tolerance is the total amount a dimension may vary. It is the
difference between the maximum and minimum limits.

Ways to Express:
1. Direct limits or as tolerance limits applied to a dimension
2. Geometric tolerances
3. A general tolerance note in title block
4. Notes referring to specific conditions

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 1. Direct limits and tolerance values

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 1. Direct limits and tolerance values –
Plus and Minus Dimensions

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 Geometric Tolerance System
Feature Control Frame

Geometric Concentricity Symbol

dimensioning and
tolerancing (GD&T) is
a method of defining
parts based on how
they function, using
standard ANSI
symbols.
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 Important Terms – single part
10.002 – Actual Measured
Dimensions
10.015 Upper Limit (MMC)
9.990 Lower Limit (LMC)

• Nominal Size – general size, usually expressed in common fractions (10

mm for the slot)

• Basic Size – theoretical size used as starting point (.500” for the slot)
• Actual Size – measured size of the finished part (.501” for the slot)
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 10.002 – Actual Measured
Dimensions

10.015 Upper Limit (MMC)

9.990 Lower Limit (LMC)

• Limits – maximum and minimum sizes shown by tolerances (.502 and .498
– larger value is the upper limit and the smaller value is the lower limit, for the
slot)

• Tolerance – total allowable variance in dimensions (upper limit – lower

limit) – object dimension could be as big as the upper limit or as small as the
lower limit or anywhere in between

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 Important Terms – Multiple Parts
• Allowance – the minimum clearance or
maximum interference between parts
• Fit – degree of tightness between two parts
– Clearance Fit – tolerance of mating parts always
leave a space
– Interference Fit – tolerance of mating parts
always interfere
– Transition Fit – sometimes interfere, sometimes
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 Fitting Multiple Parts

Tolerance of B Fit Tolerance:

Clearance or
Interference
Part B
Tolerance of A
Part A

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 Fitting Multiple Parts

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 Shaft and Hole Fits

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 Shaft and Hole Fits

CLEARANCEFIT
CLEARANCE FIT
CLEARANCE FIT
+ .003 FIT
CLEARANCE
+
+ .003
.003
+ .003

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 Basic Hole System or Hole Basis
• Definition of the "Basic Hole System":

The "minimum size" of the hole is

equal to the "basic size" of the fit

• Example: If the nominal size of a fit is

1/2", then the minimum size of the hole in
the system will be 0.500"
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 Basic Hole System
• Clearance = Hole – Shaft
• Cmax = Hmax – Smin
• Cmin = Hmin – Smax
SMAX
Both Cmax and Cmin >0 – Clearance fit SMIN
HMAX
Both Cmax and Cmin <0 – Interference fit
HMIN
Cmax > 0 Cmin < 0 – Transition fit
• System Tolerance = Cmax – Cmin
• Allowance = Min. Clearance = Cmin
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 Basic Hole System – Example
Calculate Maximum and Minimum Clearance

Clearance = Hole – Shaft

4.90
Cmax = Hmax – Smin 4.85

5.10
5.05
Cmax = 5.10 – 4.85 = 0.25

Cmin = 5.05 – 4.90 = 0.15

What is Type of Fit? Cmax > Cmin > 0 Clearance

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 Metric Limits and Fits
• Based on Standard Basic Sizes – ISO
Standard, see the Appendix material
(Table A.2 on pp. A-10 to A-13 in text)
• Note that in the Metric system:
Nominal Size = Basic Size
• Example: If the nominal size is 8, then the
basic size is 8

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 Metric Preferred Hole Basis
System of Fits

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 Metric Tolerance Homework
– Example TOL-
1B

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 Determining the limits of size for a shaft ø40g11
Basic size step: 30 to 50 mm (from table 4-IS919)
Standard tolerance = 160µm (from table 1-IS919)
Fundamental deviation = -9µm (from table 2-IS919)
Upper deviation = Fundamental Deviation = -9µm

Lower Deviation = Fundamental Deviation – Tolerance

= -9 – 160 µm = -169 µm
Limits of Size:
Maximum = 40 – 0.009 = 139.991 mm
Minimum = 130 – 0.169 = 39.831 mm
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 Determining the limits of size for a hole 130N4
Basic size step: 120 to 180 mm (from table 4-IS919)
Standard tolerance = 12µm (from table 1-IS919)
Fundamental deviation = -27 + µm (from table 3-IS919)
Value of D = 4 µm (from table 1-IS919)
Upper deviation = Fundamental Deviation
= -27 + 4 = -23 µm
Lower Deviation = Fundamental Deviation – Tolerance
= -23 – 12 µm = -35 µm
Limits of Size:
Maximum = 130 – 0.023 = 129.977 mm
Minimum = 130 – 0.035 = 129.965 mm

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Micrometers: Nomenclature

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 Slip Gauge :

Accuracy Grades & Applications :

There are five grades of slip gauges are in use:

Grade ’00’: This is the highest grade and is intended for use as
reference only in specialized calibration laboratories.

Grade ‘0’: These higher accuracy gauges are used within controlled
environment & temperature for precision work, like calibration of
slip gauges, instruments, dial gauges & other gauges.

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 Slip Gauge :

Grade ‘K’: They are used as master of calibration of gauge block

by comparison method in environmentally controlled room.
Grade ‘1’: This is normal grade for use within designated
inspection area for inspection of equipment such as Plug Gauges,
Limit Snap Gauges, Setting of electronic measuring devices,
Verniers, Micrometers etc.
Grade ‘2’: This is normal inspection grade used in shop floor for
general inspection.

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 Slip Gauge :

Care for Slip Gauges:

•Never use slip gauge bare hand (Put on cotton gloves).
•After the work is over remove finger print over the working face of
gauge block with the help of tissue paper & alcohol.
•Apply Petroleum jelly on the Block.
•Always keep the block in the case provided.
•Save the working face from minor scratches too.

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 Process of Wringing or joining two gauge block together

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 Nomenclature of a Vernier Calliper

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 Different uses of Vernier Calliper

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 How to Read Vernier Calliper

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 Digital Calliper

Utmost care to be taken to

this surface so that it could
not get scratched/damaged.

Precautions:
•Before taking measurement ensure that at initial position it is showing zero
other press zero at initial (Both jaws closed together).
•For taking internal measurement do not forget to add the jaw width in the
result. Usually it is written on back of the Calliper jaws.)
•Do Not wipe the digital Calliper with oil or any lubricant.
•Keep it in the case provided.
•Store it in moist free environment. (It will be better if you put some bag of
silica jell in the storage cup-board)
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 Multi anvil Depth Micrometer

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 Bore Gauge

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 Digimatic Micrometers

Applications: For general purpose measurement like diameter, length

etc
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 Flange Micrometers

Applications: For Span measurements of gears, tooth thickness, undercut

dimensions etc
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 Gear Tooth Vernier Calliper
Uses:
For measuring
tooth width,
chordal thickness
or any dimensions
at particular height
or width.

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 Point Micrometer

For measuring narrow groove, recess slot, web thickness of drill,

keyways & other hard to reach dimensions.
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 Blade Micrometer

Application:
For measuring groove diameters, recess slot, keyways &
other hard to reach portions.
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 Prismatic Micrometer

Application:
This is used for checking circular having odd number of flutes,
Screw Tap, End mill.
Geometrical form such as lobbing etc.
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 Inside Micrometer

Application:
For inspection of bore diameter, slot diameter, root diameter etc.

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 Dial Snap Meter

Application:
This is a comparator with high degree of repeatability used in
mass inspection of precise components with reference to a setting
master.
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 Dial Indicator
The indication of such indicator is
obtained by a gear train. In operation
sensitive contact point is attached with
rack & indicator hand is attached with
pinion gear.
It comes in many combination of
resolution of 0.0005mm to 0.1 mm.

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 Lever Type Dial Gauge: Taking measurement with lever
type dial gauge try to keep the axis of contact point parallel or at 90°
to the measuring direction. Other than this reading must be
multiplied by the correction factor as per the given table.

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 Plain Plug Gauge

This is used for checking limit of minor diameter of holes.

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 Master Setting Ring
Uses: Quick setting of
bore gauge, Inside
micrometers, Air
gauge & as a refernce
master.
Care: Its surface must
be protected from rust,
finger prints, high
humid area & store
with applying
petroleum jelly.

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 Cylindrical Setting Master
Uses: Used as reference
standard for setting dial snap
gauge, Prismatic micrometers,
dial comparators etc.
Care & Storage: It should be
protected from rust, dust &
should be stored with proper
application of any rust
preventive like petroleum jelly.
Its working surface should not
get scratches.

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 Tri Square
This is most common tool use in shop floor
This is used to check sureness between the
reference surfaces, marking perpendicular line.

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 General Handling Precautions for Instruments/Gauges.
• Do not keep any instruments directly on ground. (Silica present on ground acts as an abrasive & causes
scratches/damages of the base.
•Moisture present on the ground will also cause rusting of the base.
•There should not be much more temperature differences in measuring instruments & work pieces.
(Ideally both should be kept in same temperature/environments at least two hours prior to
measurements.
•Storage of instruments:
•Always keep the instruments in the case provided.
•After the work end of each day keep the gauges (Specially ferrous) after applying thin oil or petroleum
jelly.
•If the gauges are in very rare in use then wipe the old petroleum jelly every month with help of Carbon
tetra Chloride (CCl4) then again apply the jelly.
•Do not oil the plunger of Dial Indicator.
•Do not oil the Surface of Digital Vernier Calliper.
•Do not dismantle any parts if any problem you face the with measuring instruments (Better hand over
this instruments to metrology personnel mentioning the problem).
•Do nor replace the parts of one instrument with the other.

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 Precautions for Digital Micrometers:
1. Do not dismantle any parts.
2. The spindle is designed so that it can not be removed from the inner sleeve. Do not move it past the
upper limit of the measuring range.
3. Do not use electric marking pen or other such device on the micrometers.
4. Keep the micrometers away from direct sun light.
5. Keep the micrometers away from dirt, dust or moisture.
6. Always keep in the case provided.
7. Avoid taking measurement when job is wet with oil or coolant.
8. While storing only external or exposed area of spindle to be wiped with the linen free cotton clothe
soaked with thin oil & ensure that before rotating this oil must be cleaned with dry cloth & alcohol.
9. Always hold the micrometers on the insulator provided.
10. Measurement must be taken using ratchet force of micrometers.
11. Ratchet should not move more than two turn.

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 Sine Bar

G
a
u
g
e

b
mm l
300 o
h=
le n gt c
Sin k

h
e
i
g
h
t

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 Measuring angle with the help of sine bar

Step -1 Place the tapered components on the sine bar

Step -2 Raise the one side of sine bar against the taper with the help of Slip gauge.
Step -3 By checking with test indicator make the tapered portion parallel to surface plate by adding removing
slip gauge of different size.
Step -4 If the tapered portion gets parallel to the surface plate, calculate its angle by the formulae-

Sine Angle Sine α = Slip Gauge height (p) ÷ Sin length (h)-Often inscribe on the sine bar.

sine α = p/h

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 Open Tolerances for non tolerated linear dimensions
Table: Permissible deviation for linear dimensions except for broken edges
Tolerance Class Ove
r
200
0
Over Over Over Over Over up
Over 3 Over 6 30 120 400 1000 to
Designati 0.5 up to up to up to up to up to up to 400
on Description up to 3 6 30 120 400 1000 2000 0

f fine ± 0.05 ± 0.05 ± 0.1 ± 0.15 ± 0.2 ± 0.3 ± 0.5 -

m medium ± 0.1 ± 0.1 ± 0.2 ± 0.3 ± 0.5 ± 0.8 ± 1.2 ±2
c coarse ± 0.2 ± 0.3 ± 0.5 ± 0.8 ±1.2 ±2 ±3 ±4
v very coarse - ± 0.5 ±1 ±1.5 ±2.5 ±4 ±6 ±8
Note: For nominal size below 0.5 mm, the deviation shall be indicated adjacent to the relevant
nominal size's).

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 Open Tolerances for non tolerated external radii & chamfer
heights
Table: Permissible deviation for broken edges (External Radii &
Chamfer Heights)
Tolerance Class
Design Descripti Over 0.5 Over 3 Over 6
ation on up to 3 up to 6
f fine
m medium ± 0.2 ± 0.5 ±1
c coarse
very
v coarse ± 0.4 ±1 ±2
Note: For nominal size below 0.5 mm, the deviation shall be indicated
adjacent to the relevant nominal size(s).

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 Open Tolerances for non tolerated angular dimensions

Table: Permissible deviation for angular dimensions

Tolerance Class Permissible deviations for ranges of lengths, in
millimeters, of the shorter side of the angle concerned
Desig Descript Over Over 10 Over 50 up Over 120 up
nation ion 10 up to 50 to 120 to 400 Over 400
f fine
m medium ± 1° ± 0°30' ±0°20' ±0°10' ±0°5'
±1°30
c coarse ' ±1° ± 0°30' ±0°15' ±0°10'
very
v coarse ±3° ±2° ± 1° ± 0°30' ±0°20'

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 Open Tolerances for Perpendicularity

General Tolerance on Perpendicularity

Perpendicularity tolerances for ranges of
nominal lengths of the shorter side
Tolerance
Class Over 100 Over 300 Over 1000
up to 100
up to 300 up to 1000 up to 3000

H 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

K 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
L 0.6 1 1.5 2

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 Open Tolerances for Straightness & Flatness

General Tolerance on Straightness & Flatness

Straightness and flatness tolerances for ranges of nominal
lengths
Toleranc
e Over Over
Over 10
Class Over 30 Over 100 300 1000
up to 100 up to
up to 100 up to 300 up to up to
30
1000 3000

H 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

K 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
L 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

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 Open Tolerances for Symmetry

General Tolerances on symmetry (Values in mm)

Symmetry tolerances for ranges of
nominal lengths
Toleran
ce Over
Class up to 100 Over 100 Over 300 1000
up to 300 up to 1000 up to
3000
H 0.5
K 0.6 0.8 1
L 0.6 1 1.5 2

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 Open Tolerances for Circular Run Out

General Tolerances on circular run-out (Values in

mm)

Tolerance
class Circular run-out tolerances
H 0.1
K 0.2
L 0.5

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 Roughness Grade No. & Symbol
Roughness Roughness Roughness Symbol
New
grade Number value Ra(µm) Old
N12

N12 50 ~
N11

N11 25
N10

N10 12.5
N9

N9 6.3
N8

N8 3.2
N7

N7 1.6
N6

N6 0.8
N5

N5 0.4
N4

N4 0.2
N3

N3 0.1
N2

N2 0.05
N1

N1 0.025
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 Vernier Height Gauges
Like the Vernier Calliper, Vernier Height
Gauge consists of a stationary beam and a
movable slide on which a graduated Vernier
scale is mounted. With that a scriber is
mounted.
Measurement is done at the scriber face.
The primary use of height gauge is in the
field of surface plate work. It is commonly
used for marking vertical distances &
measuring step height or marking line at
particular intervals.

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 Vernier Depth Gauge
The Vernier depth gauge differ
slightly from the Vernier caliper
& Vernier height gauge in that
Vernier slide assembly remains
fixed with the jaws & main scale
moves up or down.
This is used to check internal as
well as external depth, step height
Etc.

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 Dial Snap Gauge

This most common instruments used in shop floor in combination

with setting master in inspection of mass production. Particularly for
measuring diameter having fine tolerances.
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 Feeler Gauge

This is also known as gap gauge. It checks gaps where normal

measuring instruments has difficulties to reach. It comes in
different size up to 1 mm in the step of 0.01 mm
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 Bench Centre
This is basically used to check run out,
circularity & concentricity of circular
job. It is used with combination with
dial indicator.

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 Surface Plate
A surface plate is a flat plane used as a reference
surface from which final dimensions are taken. It is
made of two different material one is from cast iron
by scrapping the surface & other from Granite by
lapping & polishing.

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 Screw Pitch Gauge

This is used for checking pitch of external as well as internal

threads.

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 Setting the origin in Digital Micrometers.
(For single spindle)
Before starting measurement check the origin point and set the origin (datum point) by
following the procedure below.
Remove dust and oil from the measuring faces before setting the origin.
Insert the Battery & lock it.
After putting the battery the origin value 25.000 is displayed and “P” flashes on the
LCD.
•Insert the standard length bar & apply the measuring force by turning the ratchet.
•Press the origin button & flashing of “P” will stop.
Now instrument is ready for taking measurements

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 Setting the origin in Digital Micrometers.
(For Multi spindle)
Before starting measurement check the origin point and set the origin (datum point) by following the
procedure below.
Remove dust and oil from the measuring faces before setting the origin.
Insert the Battery & lock it.
After putting the battery the preset/origin value 000.000 is displayed and “P” flashes on the LCD.
•Insert the standard length bar & apply the measuring force by turning the ratchet.
•Keep the preset button pressed for certain seconds the 0 will start flashing.
•Press the preset button continuously to get the desired number.
•Hold the preset button hold till the other “0” starts flashing. If you do not need to
•Press the origin button & flashing of “P” will stop.
Now instrument is ready for taking measurements

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 Video clippings for setting multi spindle micrometers.

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 Screw Thread

There are many different thread forms in use today. An optical

comparator is the easiest method of determining thread form. Profile
gages, if available, and visual methods can also be used. Great care
must be taken as many forms are almost identical. The Acme form
(29 degree included angle) is only 1 degree different from the ISO
Metric Trapezoidal form (30 degree included angle). Many thread
forms such as Unified, Metric ISO and Acme are subject to
published standards while others, including Ballscrew and Worm
threads, are not defined in detail by any standards organizations.

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 Thread Pitch
The thread pitch can be measured with a steel rule, or a caliper or
comparator can be used. The thread pitch is the axial distance from
one thread groove to the next. By laying a steel rule down the axis
of a screw and counting the number of thread crests in a given
length, the pitch can be determined by dividing the count into the
length. In the example shown , there are 5 pitches in 1 in. so the
thread pitch is .200 in. Note that the number of threads per inch is
the reciprocal of the thread pitch. A common mistake is to count the
number of threads starting with "one". This will lead to a one pitch
error. Make sure you start with "zero" for the first thread. To double
check your pitch determination, check your pitch determined by
count against your actual pitch measurement.

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 The hand of the thread can be easily determined by visual
inspection. Simply compare your screw threads with the right hand
and left hand threads illustrated in Figure 45. Most threads are right
hand and right hand is assumed if no left hand designation is
specified. Left hand threads are common on manual drives where
clockwise handle rotation raises, tightens, extends, or creates motion
away from the operator. On fine threads, it may be necessary to lay a
small wire in the thread grooves to determine hand. Matching the
angle of lie of the wire with the illustrations will indicate the hand of
thread

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 Major Diameter
The major diameter can be measured with a micrometer, caliper or
steel rule. Major diameters are generally the first numbers found in
thread designations. A 1/2-10 Acme thread for example, has a major
diameter of .500 in. Care must be taken to measure the major diameter
on a section of the screw thread that is not worn. A worn portion will
measure smaller (or larger if burrs have been rolled up) than the
original major diameter. Therefore, it is good practice to measure the
major diameter over the least used section of the screw.

Metrology
Metrology
 Minor Diameter
The minor diameter can be determined by direct measurement on an
optical comparator or by measuring the depth of the thread with a
depth micrometer and subtracting twice the measured depth of thread
from the major diameter. When using a comparator to measure the
minor diameter, remember that the reflected image is reversed
(except on modern, image correcting comparators). This means that
the bottom of the shaft is shown at the top of the screen. Often oil
from the shaft runs down and collects on the bottom of the thread
grooves increasing the shadow image. If the oil is not removed, a
false (oversized minor diameter) reading will result.

Metrology
Metrology
Pitch Diameter
The pitch diameter is the diameter at which the thread tooth and the thread space are
equal. To accurately measure the pitch diameter requires optical comparator or thread
wires. The optical comparator is the easiest to use as the measurement can be directly
made and no mathematics are necessary. The disadvantage to the optical method is that
the screw must be physically removed from the machine and taken to the comparator.
Also, many small shops may not be equipped with a comparator. Measurement over
thread wires is an attractive alternative to the comparator for measuring pitch diameter.
These measurements can be made directly on the screw. Thread wire measurements are
quite accurate, however, they require the use of mathematical formulas along with
thread form and pitch information to translate the measurement results into the pitch
diameter.

Metrology
Metrology
 Number of Starts
The number of starts on most threads is one (single start). However, a number of
thread including Lead Screw, and Ball Screw threads may have from 2 to 20
starts or more. Multiple starts are used to increase the lead (linear advancement
per revolution). In most cases, increasing the number of starts is preferable to
increasing the pitch because larger pitches reduce the minor diameter. A small
minor diameter decreases the screw stiffness and makes it more difficult to tap
nuts because of the likelihood of the tap breaking during tapping. Also, for the
same lead, increasing the number of starts actually increases the thread contact
area when compared to a thread with the same lead but using fewer starts and a
coarser pitch. Close examination of the thread will reveal the number of starts
9). Simply place a pencil or marker pen in the thread groove and rotate the
thread one revolution. If the end of the pencil mark is in the adjacent thread
groove, the screw has a single start. If there is one thread between the beginning
and the end of the mark, it is a two start thread, two grooves, a three start thread
and so on. Another way to discover the thread starts is to examine a transverse
section of the screw. As illustrated in Figure, if the end view is an offset circle,
the screw is single start. A two start thread will have roughly a football shape, a
three start thread will have a tri-oval shape and a four start thread will be
noticeably four cornered. Usually, five starts and up can simply be counted in
the transverse section.
Metrology
Metrology
 Identification procedure for threads

Determine if the thread is Taper or Parallel.

With the help of Vernier Calliper measure the tip diameter of 1st, 4th
& last full threads.
If the diameters increases for a male thread or decreases for a female
thread the thread is Taper.
If all the diameters are same the thread is Parallel or straight.
Pitch: In NPT pitch refers to number of thread per inch while in
metric thread pitch refers to distance between adjacent threads.

Metrology
Metrology
 A taper thread is a continuous helical ridge of uniform section
and uniform axial spacing formed on the exterior or interior of a
circular cone.
In taper screw thread minor, effective & major diameters
progressively increases along the axis, hence there must be
known the following particulars.
•The Taper angle
•The position (usually at the end face) at which it is agreed to
measure effective diameter.

Metrology
Metrology
 NPT Threads: The National (American) pipe threads has a thread
angle of 60°, and is mainly used for connections where pressure-
tight joints are made on the threads.
BSP Taper Threads (British standard pipe thread): It has a thread
angle of 55°

Metrology
Metrology
 NPT Thread designation.
The type of pipe threads are designated by specifying in sequence the
nominal pipe size, number of thread per inch and the thread series symbol
as follows.
3/8 – 18 NPT
1/8 – 27 NPSC
½ - 14 NPTR
For left hand thread use suffix LH other wise it will be assumed as right
hand thread.
Hand
3/8 – 18 NPT -LH

No. of thread
Major Dia per inch Symbol
TPI
Metrology
Metrology
 Each these letter in the symbol has a definite significance as
follows:
N = National (American) Standard
P = Pipe
T = Taper
C = Coupling
S = Straight
M = Mechanical
L = Locknut
H = Hose coupling

Metrology
Metrology
 Determine the thread pitch
To determine the thread pitch, use the screw pitch gauge and check the
thread against each form until you find a match. Try the appropriate
pitch gauge form for the threads until you find the perfect match as
shown in picture below.

Improper Proper
Matching Matching

Metrology
 Number of Starts

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Metrology
 Nomenclature of Taper Thread

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Metrology
 P

D = Basic major Diameter of internal thread (nominal diameter) D1= Basic Minor Diameter of internal thread

d = Basic major Diameter of external thread (nominal diameter) d1= Basic Minor Diameter of external thread

D2= Basic Pitch Diameter of internal thread H= Height of the fundamental triangle.

d2= Basic Pitch Diameter of external thread. P= Pitch

Metrology
 Formulae for Basic Elements of Screw Thread

H=0.866025P

D2 = d2= d-3/4H = d-0.64952P

D1= d2-2(H/2-H/4) = d-2H1 = d-1.08253P

d3=d2-2(H/2-H/6) = d-1.22687P

H1= (D-D1)/2 = 5/8H = 0.54127P

h3 = (d-d3)/2 = 17/24H = 0.61343P

R= H/6 = 0.14434P
Metrology
 Three Wire Set For Inspection of Effective Diameter of Thread

For Thread Angle 60° : E= M-3d+0.866025P

For Thread Angle 55° : E= M-3.16567d+0.96049P
M
Where
E= Effective Diameter
M- Dimensions over wire
P- Pitch of the thread

Metrology
Metrology
 Thread Plug Gauge

Thread Plug gauge are maninly consists of two parts one is GO

& other is NOGO.
GO-Checks the maximum material functional limit. For the
product to be acceptable gauges must enter & freely pass the
whole thread length. It checks all elements of threads except the
minor diameter.
NOGO- Checks the minimum functional limit of effective
diameters.
Metrology
Metrology
 Thread Ring Gauge:
Uses: It is used to check effective
diameter as well as profile of an
external thread. It is of two type one is
GO thread ring gauge which checks
the maximum material limit of an
external threaded parts. For a part to be
acceptable it must freely enter the Go
thread ring gauge to entire length. GO
thread ring gauge checks all the thread
elements except the major dia.
NOGO which checks minimum
material limit of a threaded parts. For
the parts to be acceptable, the gauge
should not enter thread or pass over the
thread more than three turns without
applying excessive force.

Metrology
 Wear Check Plug Gauge
It is used for checking maximum wear
limit of thread ring gauges. While
checking it should not pass the thread ring
gauge or more than one complete turn with
normal hand pressure.
Care & Storage: It should be protected
from rust, dust & should be stored with
proper application of any rust preventive
like petroleum jelly.

Metrology
 Quality Terminology
Accuracy: A general term describing the closeness between measured
value & true value.

Calibration: A determination of the errors of a measuring instruments

or standard.

Datum: A theoretically exact geometric reference to which tolerance

features are related.

Metrology
Metrology
Dimension: A numerical value that defines a features.
Discrimination: The ability of an instruments to respond to small
changes in the measured quantity.

Error: The difference between measured value & true value.

Measured value: The result of a measurement.
Precision: The closeness of agreement between successive
measurements under identical conditions over a short time interval.
Usually defined with a specified probability.
Metrology
Repeatability: The closeness of agreement between successive
measurements under identical conditions over a short time interval.
Usually defined with a specified probability.

Reproducibility: The closeness of agreement between measurements

under different conditions (different appraiser or different instrument).

Resolution: The ability of an instruments to respond to small changes

in the measured quantity.

Metrology
Metrology
Stability: Reproducibility of readings separated by long time intervals.
Traceability: The ability to establish the valid calibration of an
instrument or standard by step by step comparison with better standards.

Uncertainty: The range of value relative to the measured value with

in which the true value is estimated to lie, generally with a specified
probability.

Metrology
Metrology
 Torque
Torque is the application of a FORCE acting at a radial
DISTANCE and tending to cause rotation.

S.I IMPERIAL METRIC

mN∙m – milli Newton meter. ozf∙in – ounce force inch gf∙cm – gramme force centimeter
cN∙m – centi Newton meter. lbf∙in – pound force inch kgf∙cm – Kilogramme forces centimeter
N∙m – Newton meter lbf∙ft – pound forces foot kgf∙m – Kilogramme force meter

Metrology
Metrology
 TORQUE CONVERSION FACTOR
Units to be
mN∙m cN∙m N∙m ozf∙in lbf∙in lbf∙ft gf∙cm Kgf∙cm Kgf∙m
Converted
1 mN∙m = 1 0.1 0.001 0.142 0.009 0.0007 10.2 0.01 0.0001
1 cN∙m = 10 1 0.01 1.416 0.088 0.007 102 0.102 0.001
1 N∙m = 1000 100 1 141.6 8.851 0.738 10.197 10.2 0.102
1 ozf∙in = 7062 0.706 0.007 1 0.0625 0.005 72 0.072 0.0007
1 lbf∙in = 113 11.3 0.113 16 1 0.083 1152.1 1.152 0.0115
1 lbf∙ft = 1356 135.6 1.356 192 12 1 13.826 13.83 0.183
1 gf∙cm = 0.098 0.01 0.0001 0.014 0.0009 0.00007 1 0.001 0.00001
1 Kgf∙cm = 98.07 9.807 0.098 13.89 0.868 0.072 1000 1 0.01
1 Kgf∙m = 9807 980.7 9.807 1389 86.8 7.233 100000 100 1

Example: convert 10lbf∙ft into cN∙m = 10*135.6 = 1356 cN∙m

Metrology
Metrology

1. Serial No.
2. Date of Procurement
3. Date of Commissioning
4. Make
5. Model
6. Measuring range
7. Linear U1 (µm) (L in mm)
Volumetric U2 (µm) (L in mm)
Gauge Accuracy
8. Minimum resolution
9. Probing Speed
10. Max. Scanning Speed
11. Air Pressure
12. Max. Probe pin wt.
13. Pickup of measuring points
14. Operating Temperature
Metrology
CMM
: 722
: 1996
: 1997
: LEITZ, Germany
: PMM 12 10 6
: X = 1200 mm, Y = 1000 mm, Z = 600
: 0.5 + L/700 µ
: 0.8 + L/450 µm
: 0.3 + L/1000 µm
In volume 600 X 600 X 300 mm
: 0. 1  m
: 0.1 - 3 mm/sec
: 50 mm/s
: 5.5 ± 0.3 bar
: 650 gm (W/o Probe holder)
: 200 points/sec
: 200 ± 0.50C
Metrology
 Software
• GRAPHIC Programming (GRABAS)
• Form Analysis, Basic Statistics (STCBAS),
• Quality Control Charts (STCGCC),
• Machine capability test (STCMCS),
• Trend Analysis (STCTRO),
• Measurement of Helical & Spur Gear (GEARHX),
• Measurement of Involutes Bevel Gear (GEARBV),
• Measurement of Straight Bevel Gear (GEARSB),
• Calculation of basic setting for Gleason (BVMACH),
• Calculation of nominal Bevel Gear Tooth profile processing of bevel
(BVCORR),
• Gear measuring data and calculation of correct parameter for Gleason
cutters, 2 Dimensional gauging of a element (hole pattern) to their
nominal position with MMC (GAUGE2D),
• ISO Tolerance input, Off-line programming, Operations on planar &
special curves (OPER2D)
Metrology
Metrology
 Software
•Gauge inspection, Feature oriented measurement
(FEATRE),
•calculation of correction parameter for Gleason Phoenix
(BVPHNX),
•Measurement of Hob cutters (GDHOB),
Measurement of Gear shaper, Measurement of Gear
shaver, Palletized measurement. Measurement of
cylindrical and conical threads.

Metrology
Metrology
 Basic Principle of Working on CMM
First clamp the job firmly on m/c bed in such a way that probe should
be accessible to all the geometry of the elements to be measured.
Align the job such that the min. two coordinate can be locked.
Make all the three reference co-ordinate (X,Y,Z) zero.
Measure all the elements & calculate various elements.
Save the program.
While checking repeat job just check the dimensions up to alignment
& run the program.

Metrology
Metrology
 Suggestions are welcome to further
improve this power point.

E-mail ID :
rawatprakash3671@gmail.com

Metrology
Metrology