EE580 – Solar Cells

Todd J. Kaiser
• Lecture 08
• Solar Cell Characterization

Montana State University: Solar Cells 1

Lecture 8: Characterization
Solar Cell Operation
n p Rear Contact
Emitter Base
Antireflection Absorption of photon
coating creates an electron
hole pair. If they are
within a diffusion
length of the
depletion region the
electric field separates
them.

The electron after

passing through
Front Contact the load
- recombines with
+ the hole
completing the
External Load circuit
Montana State University: Solar Cells 2
Lecture 8: Characterization
 Solar Cell Electrical Model
• PV is modeled as a current source because it
supplies a constant current over a wide range of
voltages
• It has p-n junction diode that supplies a potential
• It has internal resistors that impede the flow of
the electrons

Montana State University: Solar Cells 3

Lecture 8: Characterization
 Solar
Input
Circuit Diagram
Front Contact
I

Rs
Recombination
Ohmic Flow

Current V
I RLoad
Source Rsh

Rear Contact External

Load
Montana State University: Solar Cells 4
Lecture 8: Characterization
 Electrical Losses
• Series Resistance
(Resistance of Hole & Electron Motion)
– Bulk Resistance of Semiconductor Materials
– Bulk Resistance of Metallic Contacts and Interconnects
– Contact Resistance
• Parallel Resistance or Shunt Resistance
(Recombination of Hole and Electron)
– PN junction Leakage
– Leakage around edge of Junction
– Foreign Impurities & Crystal Defects

Montana State University: Solar Cells 5

Lecture 8: Characterization
 Power & IV Curve
• Power (Watts) is the rate at which energy (Joules) is
supplied by a source or consumed by a load… It is a
rate not a quantity
• The power output by a source is the product of the
current supplied and the voltage at which the current
was supplied
• Power output = Source voltage x Source current
– P=V x I (Watts = Joules/second) = (Volts)x(Amperes)
• By changing the resistance of the load different currents
and corresponding voltages can be measured and
plotted

Montana State University: Solar Cells 6

Lecture 8: Characterization
 Solar Cell I-V Characteristics

 qV 
Current I  I 0  e  1  I L
kT

 
Dark

Current from Absorption of Photons

Voltage
Light

Twice the Light = Twice the Current

Montana State University: Solar Cells 7
Lecture 8: Characterization
 Operating Point
I (mA) V oc
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
I 0 V
V
I
I-V for a solar cell
under an illumination
V 100 of 700 W m-2
Slope = ­ 1/R
Operating point
I
The load line for
I R Isc = Iph P R=3
200 (I-V for the load)
(a) (b)

Montana State University: Solar Cells 8

Lecture 8: Characterization
Short IV Plot Maximum
Circuit Power
Current Imp
Operating
I mpVmp Point
FF 
I scVoc
Current Power

Voltage (V) Vmp

Open
Circuit
Volt (V) 0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.54 0.57 Voltage
Current (A) 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 0.75 0
Power (W) 0 0.13 0.39 0.6 0.4 0

Montana State University: Solar Cells 9

Lecture 8: Characterization
 Resistance Effects
ISC ISC

Current Current

Increasing decreasing
RS RP

Voltage VOC Voltage VOC

Ideal case RS = 0 and RP = ∞

Both reduce the area of the maximum power rectangle

therefore reducing the efficiency and fill factor

Montana State University: Solar Cells 10

Lecture 8: Characterization
Loss Mechanisms in Solar Cells
Loss

Optical Electrical

Ohmic Recombination

Reflection Solar Cell Material Emitter Region

Solar Cell Material
Shadowing Base
Emitter Surface
Unabsorbed Radiation Base Region
Contact Material
Finger Solar Cell Material
Collection Bus Surface
Junction Space Charge Region
Metal – Solar Cell
Montana State University: Solar Cells 11
Lecture 8: Characterization
 Photovoltaic Effect

Separation of holes and

electrons by Electric
Field Voltage

Creation of
Absorption of extra electron
Light Power = V x I
hole pairs
Excitation (EHP)
of
electrons

Current
Movement of charge
by Electric Field
Montana State University: Solar Cells 12
Lecture 8: Characterization
 Linking Cells
• Solar cells are not usually used individually because they
do not output sufficient voltage and power to meet typical
electrical demands
• The amount of voltage and current they output can be
increased by combining cells together with wires to
produce larger area solar modules
• Cells can be connected in a number of ways
– Strings – where cells are connected in series
– Blocks 2 or more strings connected together in parallel
– Joining 2 or more blocks together

Montana State University: Solar Cells 13

Lecture 8: Characterization
 Current
Solar Cell Panels

Current
Parallel
connections
increase the
current output

Voltage Voltage Blocks

Series
increase
connections
both current
Current

increase the
and voltage
voltage output
output
Voltage Montana State University: Solar Cells 14
Lecture 8: Characterization
Calculating Voltage and Current
• Series connections are made by connecting one cell’s n-
type contact to the p-type of the next cell
• Parallel connections are made by joining each cells n-
type contacts together and p-type contacts together
• Series connections the voltages add
• Parallel connections the current add
• Series connections the current flow is equal to the
current from the cell generating the smallest current
(limited by poorest cell)
• Parallel connections the voltage is the average of the
cells or string in parallel

Montana State University: Solar Cells 15

Lecture 8: Characterization
 Example: Cells Series Connected

1 Cell A Cell B Cell C 2

V = 0.58 V V = 0.54 V V = 0.61 V
I = 0.28 A I = 0.31 A I = 0.25 A

• The voltage across terminals 12 is the sum of the

voltages
• V12 = VA + VB + VC = 0.58 + 0.54 + 0.61 =1.73(V)
• The current through the cells is restricted by the smallest
current produce by any of the cells
• I12 = 0.25 (A)

Montana State University: Solar Cells 16

Lecture 8: Characterization
Example: Cells Parallel Connected
3

Cell A Cell B Cell C

V = 0.58 V V = 0.54 V V = 0.61 V
I = 0.28 A I = 0.31 A I = 0.25 A

4
• The voltage across terminals 34 is the average of the
voltages
• V34 = (VA + VB + VC )/3 = (0.58 + 0.54 + 0.61)/3 = 0.58(V)
• The current at the terminals 34 is the sum of the
currents in each cell
• I34 = (IA + IB +IC) = (0.28 + 0.31 + 0.25) = 0.84(A)

Montana State University: Solar Cells 17

Lecture 8: Characterization
 Example: Block Connected
5
A A A

B B B

C C C
6

• The voltage across terminals 56 given by the series voltage already

calculated:
• V56 = VA + VB + VC = 0.58 + 0.54 + 0.61 =1.73(V)
• The current at the terminals 56 is the sum of the currents in each
string already calculated
• I56 = 3(Istring) = 3(0.25) = 0.75(A)

Montana State University: Solar Cells 18

Lecture 8: Characterization
 Summary Linking Cells
• Linking modules or batteries is similar to connecting
PV cells
– Series Connections
• Voltages are added in series connections
• The current is restricted to the smallest current
– Parallel connections
• The currents are added in parallel connections
• The voltages are averaged from each string
• Solar Cells and Modules are Matched to improve the
power generated

Montana State University: Solar Cells 19

Lecture 8: Characterization