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Link Layer
combination of hardware,
software, firmware network adapter
card
datagram datagram
controller controller
frame
otherwise
0 0
sender: receiver:
treat segment contents as compute checksum of
sequence of 16-bit received segment
integers check if computed
checksum: addition (1’s checksum equals checksum
complement sum) of field value:
segment contents NO - error detected
sender puts checksum YES - no error detected.
value into UDP But maybe errors
checksum field nonetheless?
D.2r
R = remainder[ ]
G
6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4
time
frequency bands
FDM cable
node 2 2 2 2
node 3 3 3 3
C E C S E C E S S
Pros: Cons:
single active node can collisions, wasting slots
continuously transmit at idle slots
full rate of channel nodes may be able to
highly decentralized: only detect collision in less
slots in nodes need to be
in sync than time to transmit
packet
simple clock synchronization
Link Layer 5-25
Slotted ALOHA: efficiency
!
prob that given node has
success in a slot = p(1- used for useful
p)N-1 transmissions 37%
prob that any node has a of time!
success = Np(1-p)N-1
Link Layer 5-26
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
when frame first arrives
transmit immediately
collision probability increases:
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1,t0+1]
= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)
= 1/(2e) = .18
efficiency goes to 1
as tprop goes to 0
as ttrans goes to infinity
better performance than ALOHA: and simple, cheap, decentralized ! 1
efficiency
1 5t prop /ttrans
data
Link Layer 5-37
Cable access network
Internet frames,TV channels, control transmitted
downstream at different frequencies
cable headend
CMTS
…
splitter cable
cable modem … modem
termination system
Downstream channel i
CMTS
Upstream channel j
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
LAN
(wired or adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
IP
Eth
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
IP IP
Eth Eth
Phy Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
IP
Eth
Phy
A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
switch
star
bus: coaxial cable
Link Layer 5-55
Ethernet frame structure
sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
type
dest. source
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)
preamble:
7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one
byte with pattern 10101011
used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates
MAC protocol
application and frame format
transport
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-FX
link 100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX
physical
A A A’
switch learns which hosts
can be reached through B
C’
which interfaces
when frame received, 6 1 2
switch “ learns”
location of sender: 5 4 3
incoming LAN segment
records sender/location B’ C
pair in switch table
A’
A A A’
frame destination, A’,
B
locaton unknown: flood C’
1
destination A location 6 2
known:selectively send A A’
5 4 3
on just one link B’ C
A’ A
A’
S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E
S4
S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E
IP subnet
switch(es) supporting
VLAN capabilities can … …
be configured to Electrical Engineering Computer Science
define multiple virtual (VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)
… …
2 8 10 16
2 8 10 16 2 4 6 8
… …
type
PPP or Ethernet
MPLS header IP header remainder of link-layer frame
header
20 3 1 5
Link Layer 5-77
MPLS capable routers
a.k.a. label-switched router
forward packets to outgoing interface based only on
label value (don’t inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
flexibility: MPLS forwarding decisions can differ
from those of IP
use destination and source addresses to route flows to same
destination differently (traffic engineering)
re-route flows quickly if link fails: pre-computed backup
paths (useful for VoIP)
R6
D
R4 R3
R5
A
R2
RSVP-TE
R6
D
R4
R5 modified
link state A
flooding
R6
0 0
D
1 1
R4 R3
R5
0 0
A
R2 in outR1 out
label label dest
in out out
interface
label label dest 6 - A 0
interface
8 6 A 0
Link Layer 5-82
Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:
5.2 error detection, MPLS
correction 5.6 data center networking
5.3 multiple access 5.7 a day in the life of a
protocols web request
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
challenges:
multiple applications, each
serving massive numbers of
clients
managing/balancing load,
avoiding processing,
networking, data bottlenecks
Inside a 40-ft Microsoft container,
Chicago data center
Link Layer 5-84
Data center networks
load balancer: application-layer
routing
receives external client requests
directs workload within data center
Internet returns results to external client (hiding data
center internals from client)
Border router
Load Load
balancer Access router
balancer
Tier-1 switches
B
A C Tier-2 switches
TOR
switches
Server racks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Link Layer 5-85
Data center networks
rich interconnection among switches, racks:
increased throughput between racks (multiple routing paths
possible)
increased reliability via redundancy
Tier-1 switches
Tier-2 switches
TOR
switches
Server racks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Link layer, LANs: outline
5.1 introduction, services 5.5 link virtualization:
5.2 error detection, MPLS
correction 5.6 data center networking
5.3 multiple access 5.7 a day in the life of a
protocols web request
5.4 LANs
addressing, ARP
Ethernet
switches
VLANS
school network
68.80.2.0/24
web page
router
IP datagram forwarded from
(runs DHCP) campus network into comcast
IP datagram containing DNS network, routed (tables created by
query forwarded via LAN RIP, OSPF, IS-IS and/or BGP
switch from client to 1st hop routing protocols) to DNS server
router demux’ed to DNS server
DNS server replies to client
with IP address of
www.google.com Link Layer 5-93
A day in the life…TCP connection carrying HTTP
HTTP
HTTP
SYNACK
SYN TCP
SYNACK
SYN IP
SYNACK
SYN Eth
Phy