BACTERIAL GENETICS

Pembimbing: Dr. dr. Ida Sri Iswari, Sp.MK, M.Kes

Imaculata Sonia V. Lameng

NIM : 1971151001
PPDS-1 MIKROBIOLOGI KLINIK
FK UNUD/ RSUP SANGLAH DENPASAR
 The keys to microbial viability &
survival

Genetics Metabolism Structure

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

 GENETICS
• Process of heredity & variation  starting point of
cellular pathways, functions, & structures originate
• Determinate the ability of microorganism to
maintain viability, adapt, multiply, & cause disease

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

What do genes code for?

DNA proteins cells bodies

 Three Major Aspects of Microbial
Genetics
Structure & organization of genetic material

Replication & expression of genetic information

Mechanisms of genetic changed & exchanged

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

 Three Major Aspects of Microbial Genetics

• Hereditary information encoded in nucleic acids

• The two major classes of nucleic acids are :
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)  the most common macromolecule that
encodes genetic information
ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

 Nucleotide Structure and Sequence
• DNA  A DOUBLE HELICAL CHAIN OF NUCLEOTIDA
(deoxyribose sugars connected by phosphodiester bonds)
• A complex combination phosphate group, sugar, nitrogen base  NUCLEOTIDE
• The bases that are covalently linked to each deoxyribose sugar  key to the genetic code within
the DNA molecule
• The four nitrogenous bases :
• two purines  adenine (A) and guanine (G)
• two pyrimidines cytosine (C) and thymine (T)

• DNA and RNA are nucleotide polymers

• The order of bases along a DNA or RNA strand  Basa Sequence

provides the information that codes for the proteins that will be synthesized by microbial cells

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

Nucleotide = Base + Sugar + Phosphate
 Pyrimidines Purin

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

The Nature of the Genetic Material
• The gene  A DNA sequence that encodes for a specific product (RNA/Protein)
• The genome  the sum total of genetic material (DNA) carried within a cell
exists :
extrachromosomal elements play a key role in the exchange
• chromosomes of genetic material throughout the bacterial microbiosphere,
including genetic exchange among clinically relevant bacteria
• non chromosomal (plasmid and transposable element)

• Chromosome  a discrete cellular structure composed of a neatly packaged DNA

molecule
PLASMID
• Rolling circular, autonomously replicating extrachromosomal genetic elements
• Type of Plasmid (Factor) :
Fertility (F) Plasmids  Carry instructions for conjugation
Resistance (R) Plasmids  Carry genes for resistance to one or more antimicrobial drugs
or heavy metals
Bacteriocin Plasmids  Carry genes for proteinaceous toxins called bacteriocins, which
kill bacterial cells of the sameor similar species that lack the plasmid
Virulence Plasmids  Carry instructions for structures, enzymes or toxins that enable a
bacterium to become pathogenic
 Transposable Element
• Are mobile genetic elements that can transfer DNA within a cell, from one position to another in
the genome, or between different molecules of DNA (ex: plasmid to plasmid, plasmid to
chromosome)
• The two types of transposable elements :
• simple transposon or insertion sequence (IS)  limited to containing the genes that encode information required
for movement from one site in the genome to another
• composite transposon  cassettes (grouping of genes) flanked by insertion sequences

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

Bauman RW. Microbiology with disease by body system. 2015
Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.
Microbial Genomes
Microbial Genomes
Three Major Aspects of Microbial Genetics
Replication & expression of genetic information
Replication
• Is a complex process mediated by various enzymes such as DNA Polymerase and co factor
• Four stages :
1. Unwinding or relaxing of the chromosome’s super coiled DNA
2. Separation of the complementary strands of the parental DNA so that each may serve as a template for synthesis
pf new DNA strands (SEMICONSERVATIVE REPLICATION)
3. Synthesis of the new DNA strands
4. Termination of replication

• Origin of replication  a specific sequence recognized by several protein, followed by the separation of
the complementary strands of parental DNA

• Replication fork  the site of active replication

DNA Replication
 Expression of Genetic Information
• Gene expression :
The processing of information encoded in genetic
elements (chromosomes, plasmids, and transposons)
that results in the production of biochemically
functional molecules, including RNA and proteins
• Two steps 
• TRANSCRIPTION
• TRANSLATION

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

RNA
 Transcription
• The First Stage of Gene Expression
• The DNA base sequence of the gene is converted into an mRNA molecule
• Three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination
• RNA polymerase is the enzyme central to the transcription process
• Produces mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and regulatory ncRNA molecules

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

 Translation
• The next phase in gene expression  protein synthesis
• Process the genetic code in mRNA molecules is translated into specific amino acid sequences that are responsible for
protein structure and function

Three steps:
• Initiation  association of ribosomal subunits, mRNA, formyl methionine (f-met) and various initiation
factors
• Elongation tRNAs and elongation factors that mediate the sequential addition of amino acids in a specific
sequence dictated by the codon on the mRNA molecule
• Termination  occurs when the ribosomal A site encounters a stop or nonsense codon that does not specify an
amino acid

After termination  bacterial proteins often undergo POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

 The Genetic Code : mRNA codons & amino acids from which
they code

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017.

Three Major Aspects of Microbial Genetics
Mechanisms of genetic changed & exchanged

• Eukaryotic organisms  sexual reproduction, which allows for the mixing of genomes through genetic
exchange

• Bacteria  simple binary cell division (two identical daughter cells)  does not allow for the mixing
of genes from other cells and leaves no means of achieving genetic diversity among bacterial progeny

• Basic Mechanisms of Genetic alterations and diversity in bacteria:

• mutation
• genetic recombination
• genetic exchange/transfer between bacteria
Mutation
• An alteration in the original nucleotide sequence of a gene or genes within an organism’s genome  a
change in the organism’s genotype

• Mutational changes in the sequence may arise:

• Spontaneously  an error made during DNA replication
• Induced by mutagens  chemical or physical or biologic factors

• Mutations are changes that occur in the DNA code and often (not always) result in a change in the coded
protein or in the prevention of its synthesis
• The mutation may be silent (“silent mutations” )  do not make a change in the protein so that no
changes are detected in the organism’s phenotype
• A mutation may be the result of :
• a change in one nucleotide base (a point mutation) that leads to a change in a single amino acid within a protein
• Insertions or deletions in the genome that lead to disruption of the gene (a frame-shift mutation
• error during DNA replication
Classification of Major Types of Mutations
Categories of mutations based on type of DNA alteration:
Substitution mutations
Missense mutation causes a different amino acid to be incorporated into a protein. Effects range from unnoticeable to severe,
based on how the new amino acid alters protein function.
Nonsense mutation converts a codon to a stop codon, resulting in premature termination of protein synthesis. Effects of this
type of mutation are almost always severe.

Inversion mutations  exchange places, which alters 1 or 2 bases, depending on the location of the inversion  not
change the reading frame, but can result in significant changes in amino acids and protein function.

Frameshift Mutations  Insertion and deletion mutations cause a change in the reading frame ↔ of the mRNA,
resulting in a protein in which every amino acid after the mutation can be affected  nonfunctional protein.
 Mutation

Bauman, Robert W. Microbiology with Diseases by Body System. 5th ed. Pearson Education; 2018
 Genetic Recombination
• A method by which genes are transferred or exchanged between homologous (similar) regions on two
DNA molecules  provides a way for organisms to obtain new combinations of biochemical
pathways and copy with changes in their environment
• Some segment of DNA originating from one bacterial cell (donor) enters a second bacterial cell
(recipient)  exchanged with a DNA segment of the recipient’s genome

Bailey & Scott’s Diagnostic Microbiology Fourteenth Edition. Elsevier; 2017. Connie R Mahon. Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 6th edition. Elsevier. 2019
Genetic Exchange
• Genetic material may be transferred from one bacterium to another in three basic ways:
• Transformation
• Transduction
• Conjugation
Transformation
• Involves recipient cell uptake of free DNA released into the environment when another bacterial cell
(donor) dies and undergoes lysis.
• This DNA, which had constituted the dead cell genome, exist as fragments in the environment.
• Certain bacteria (competent) are able to take up this free DNA  transformation
• Bacteria that naturally ‘competent’ to take up DNA fragments are : S. pneumoniae, B. subtillis, H.
influenzae & N. gonorrhoeae
Transduction
• This process is mediated by viruses that infect bacteria  bacteriophages
• Virus will integrate their DNA into the bacterial cell’s chromosome, where viral DNA replication &
expression is directed.
• When the production of viral products is completed, viral DNA is excised (cut) from the bacterial
chromosome and packaged within protein coats.
• The virus are then released when the infected bacterial cell lyses.
Conjugation
• Occurs between two living cells, involves cell-to-cell contact, & requires mobilization of the donor
bacterium’s chromosome.
• The sex pilus originates from the donor and establishes a conjugative bridge that serves as the conduit
for DNA transfer from donor to recipient cell.
• The amount of DNA transferred depends on how long the cells are able to maintain contact.
Horizontal Gen
Transfer
Horizontal Gen Transfer
THANK YOU