Introduction To The Seismic Reflection Exploration Method

Chapter 1
Introduction to the Seismic

Reflection Exploration Method
Basic concept of seismic exploration
 We send artificially generated seismic waves into the

subsurface.
 The waves get reflected off layer boundaries.
 We record the reflected waves on the surface.
 We process the records to enhance the resolution and S/N
ratio.
 We interpret the records geologically.
Basic concept of seismic exploration
Earth’s surface
S R
Reflection
Subsurface point
reflector
Seismic waves
P-wave
 particle motion parallel to propagation direction

 fastest
 least expensive to generate, record, and process
 most commonly used wave in seismic exploration
Seismic waves
S-wave
 particle motion perpendicular to propagation direction

 slower than P-wave
 expensive to generate, record, and process
 rarely used in seismic exploration
Seismic waves
Surface wave
 travel along the Earth's surface (horizontally)

 slower than S-wave
 considered as “noise” in seismic exploration
 usually known as “ground roll”
Seismic waves
Surface Earth’s surface

S wave R
P-wave S-wave
Reflection
Subsurface point
reflector
Medium effects on waves
 What happens to a wave as it propagates through a

medium?
– Geometrical spreading
– Absorption
– Reflection/refraction (Snell's law)
– Diffraction
Geometrical spreading
 Wave spreads over a larger surface as it travels through

the medium.
 For a spherical wave, the wave energy falls off as the
square of the distance.
 Its effect is to weaken the later arrivals in the seismic
section.
 We correct this effect by multiplying the amplitude by the
distance (if known) or traveltime.
Absorption
 A part of wave energy is dissipated into the earth as heat.

 Wave energy falls off exponentially with distance.
 In seismic exploration, its effect is usually very small
compared to that of geometrical spreading.
 It is usually neglected.
Geometrical spreading versus absorption
S
r
A: absorption GS  1/r2
GS: geometrical spreading
S: source position A  exp(- r)
r: distance from source
 = 10-5 - 10-3
: absorption coefficient
Geometrical spreading versus absorption
1
GS
0.001 A
Amplitude
1E-06
1E-09
1E-12
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance (km)
Reflection/refraction
 When a wave encounters an interface between two layers,

part of its energy is reflected back.
 The other part is refracted (transmitted) into the other
medium.
 Snell’s law governs reflection and refraction angles.
Snell’s law
Pi Sr Pr
r
i 
 r
 t
t
Pt
St
Sini Sinr Sint Sinr Sint

1 1 2 1 2
Diffraction
 occurs when wave encounters sharp discontinuities in the

medium
 important in defining faults
 generally considered as noise in seismic sections
 seismic migration usually corrects for this effect
Diffraction
X
Earth
model
X
Seismic
Section
T
Reflection coefficients
i ≈ 0
2 V2 - 1 V1
RC =
 2 V 2 + 1 V1
1: density in incident medium

2: density in refraction medium
V1: seismic velocity in incident medium
V2: seismic velocity in refraction medium
 ≤ 15
 very slight deviation from the normal-incidence case

 For most seismic exploration purposes, i ≤ 15 is a good
assumption.
 Therefore, normal-incidence RC is used in general.
i > 15
 high deviation from the normal-incidence case

 Therefore, normal-incidence is NOT a good assumption.
 Full Zoeppritz equations have to be used.
 Zoeppritz equations are very complicated algebraically.
 If i ≤ 30, approximations of Zoeppritz equations are
used.
 Studies involving amplitude variation with offset (AVO)
use these approximations.
Magnitude
 Rock-rock RC < |0.3|

 Rock-soil RC ~ |0.7|
 Rock-water RC ~ |0.7|
 Rock-air RC ~ |1.0|
 Water-deep-sea sediments RC ~ |0.7|
 Water-air RC ~ |0.9|
Time-distance (T-X) curves
Single horizontal layer
 T2 = T02 + X2/V2.
 It is a hyperbola with apex at X = 0 and T0 = 2H/V.
– V and H are the layer velocity and thickness.
 T2-X2 plot is a straight line whose slope = 1/V2 and intercept
= T02.
 T2-X2 plot can be used to find V and H.
 Normal moveout (NMO)
– the difference between traveltimes at offsets X and 0
 TNMO (X)  X2/(2T0V2)
– used to flatten the T-X curve before stacking
 We usually know T, T0, and X from the seismic section and
we want to know V and H.
X (m)
-2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0.0
0.2
TNMO(X=1000)
0.4 = T(X=1000)-T0
T (s)
0.6
T(X=0)=T0
0.8 T(X=1000)
1.0
 Calculating layer velocity and thickness

0.8
y = 1.11E-07x + 4.00E-02
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
T2
0.3
0.2
0.1 V = (slope)-1/2 , H = T0 V/2
0
0.0E+00 1.5E+06 3.0E+06 4.5E+06 6.0E+06
X2
Single dipping layer
 T2 = T02 cos2 + (X+2H sin)2/V2

 : layer dip angle
 T-X curve is a hyperbola with apex at Xa= -2H sin and
Ta=T0cos, [T0=2H/V].
 We usually know T, T0, and X from the seismic section
and we want to know , V, and H.
 Dip moveout (DMO): the difference between traveltimes
at offsets +X and -X divided by X
 TDMO (X)  2sin/V
X (m)
-2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0.0
(Ta,Xa) T0
0.2
0.4
T(X=1000)
T (s)
0.6
T(X=-1000)
0.8
TDMO= [T(X=1000)-T(X=-1000)]/1000
1.0
 Calculating layer velocity, dip, and thickness

-We read Ta, T0, and TDMO from the seismic record.
-Then, we use them as follows:
• cos  = Ta/T0
• V  2sin /TDMO
• H = V T0/2
Multiple layers
 T-X curve is NOT a hyperbola.

 It resembles a hyperbola at near offsets (X/Z < 1).
 We best-fit a hyperbola to the T-X curve at near offsets.
 This means that we lumped the multiple layers into one
single layer.
 We use the single-layer approach to find the stacking
velocity.
 We use Dix formula to calculate the interval velocities of
the layers.
 We use the interval velocities and vertical traveltimes to
calculate the layer thicknesses.
Multiple layers
X (m)
-2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0.0
0.5
T01
1.0
T (s)
T02 1.5
2.0
T03
2.5
Multiple layers
6
5 y = 7.188E-08x + 5.290E+00
4
3 y = 7.500E-08x + 3.240E+00
2
T
2
y = 2.500E-07x + 1.000E+00
1
0
0.0E+00
1.0E+06
2.0E+06
3.0E+06
4.0E+06
5.0E+06
6.0E+06
2
X
Multiple layers
 Calculating layer interval velocities and thicknesses

1. Compute stacking velocities from T2-X2 curves
Vs1 = (slope 1)-1/2 , Vsi: stacking velocity to the bottom
Vs2 = (slope 2)-1/2 ,
Vs3 = (slope 3)-1/2
of the ith layer
2. Compute layer interval velocities using Dix formula
V1 = Vs1,
V2 = {[Vs22 T02 - Vs12 T01]/(T02 - T01)}1/2,
V3 = {[Vs32 T03 - Vs22 T02]/(T03 - T02)}1/2,
3. Compute layer interval thicknesses

H1 = V1 T01/2
H2 = V2 (T02 - T01)/2
H3 = V3 (T03 - T02)/2
Seismic events
Primary reflections
 generated by waves that have been reflected once from an

interface
 formed by the convolution of the source wavelet with the
RC of the interface
 considered the most important part of the seismic section
 comprise the “signal” while everything else on the section
is considered “noise”
Seismic events
Non-primary events
 Direct waves
– source-generated wave that travels directly from source to
receiver
– usually first arrivals at near offsets
– T-X curve is a straight line with intercept = 0
– attenuated by NMO muting and stacking
 Head waves (refractions)
– generated by critically refracted waves from near-surface
layers
– Usually first arrivals at far offsets
– T-X curve is a straight line with intercept  0
– attenuated by NMO muting and stacking
Seismic events
Non-primary events
 Diffractions
– generated by abrupt lateral changes in lithology
– T-X curve is a hyperbola
– Amplitude falls off rapidly away from the apex.
– attenuated by migration
Seismic events
Non-primary events
 Multiples
– generated by waves reflected more than once
– T-X curve is a hyperbola.
– NMO correction does NOT flatten them.
– Very high reflection coefficients are needed to produce
distinctive multiples on the seismic section.
– Most common type is water reverberation.
– attenuated by various advanced techniques
Seismic events
Non-primary events
 Ground roll
– generated by source
– They are surface waves traveling along the ground surface.
– T-X curve is a straight line with intercept = 0.
– frequency content < 10 Hz
– low velocities (100-1000 m/s)
– attenuated by arrays, frequency filtering, or F-K filtering
Seismic events
Non-primary events
Ground roll Direct P-wave

Earth’s surface
S R1 R2
Subsurface
First multiple reflector
Primary Head wave

(refraction)
Seismic events
Non-primary events
X (m)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0.0
R1 R2
0.2 Direc
t
0.4
Head wave (refraction)
T (s)
0.6
Primar
0.8
y First
Ground multiple
1.0
roll
Note varying quality
and artifacts between
land and marine data
and sources
(AGC applied)
vibroseis marine dynamite dynamite

A - ground roll (surface waves)
From Yilmaz (1987) M1,M2 - Multiples
B,C,D,E - reflections
P – reflection
PL - pegleg
The data collected from a single shot at many geophones is known as a shot gather
Seismic events
Non-primary events
 Incoherent noise
– generated by near-surface effects (e.g., humans, animals,
machines, equipment, wind, plants, scatterings, … etc)
– random in nature
– Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is the ratio between signal and
noise energies in a specific portion of the section.
– Poor sections have S/N < 1.0.
– attenuated by stacking
– Stacking M traces enhances the S/N by M1/2.
Zero-offset section
The goal of seismic reflection processing is to construct a zero-offset section,

i.e. having the source and receiver at the same place. From a practical
standpoint, this is not possible.
The goal of seismic processing is to produce a zero-offset section from the
recorded data.
Recorded data
Reflected waves
time
Because the velocity is not known exactly, the
sections are plotted versus two-way travel time rather
than depth
The Mars prospect, US Gulf Coast – 700 million barrels

Stacking
Data is noisy (due to ambient noise, electronics, reverberations, etc)and reflections are
weak.
Assume that the signal is coherent between geophones and that the noise is random.
By adding the data together, the signal will increase and the noise will cancel.
The signal to noise improvement should be N ½
This is referred to as stacking.
We only want to add all reflection from the same reflection point!
Example of stacking
Fold refers to the number of traces

added together
The reflections in a shot gather do not bounce at the same point
If we move the shot we can get bounces at the same point

Do multiple shots, then re-sort the data and put all data with the same
reflection point together
Data is collected as shot gathers, then later
re-sorted into common depth point gathers
• For straight lines on flat terrain, this is simple

• “crooked” lines due to terrain (or currents in marine data), it
is more difficult
• CDP rarely are exactly in the same place, rather all CDP
within a certain “bin” are gathered together
• The number of traces in one bin is the fold
• The same process is done with 3D data, except the bin is
an area
Basic steps for idealized data
1. Collect data (shot gathers)

2. Amplitude adjustment ()
3. Re-sort traces into Common Depth Point* gathers
4. Velocity analysis
5. Normal Moveout (NMO) correction using velocities
6. Stack
7. Migration (can be pre-stack also)
*also known as common midpoint (CMP)

The seismic wavelet
 Ideally, we want an impulse of zero width.

 Practically, the best we can attain is a narrow wavelet with
minimum sidelobes.
 Examples of practical wavelets are:
– Ricker wavelet, which approximates that of a dynamite.
– Klauder wavelet, which approximates that of a Vibroseis.
The seismic wavelet
1
Ideal wavelet
Klauder wavelet
(f = 20 – 80 Hz)
0.5
Amplitude
Ricker wavelet
(f = 30 Hz)
0
-40 -20 0 20 40
-0.5
T (msec)
Seismic resolution
 ability to distinguish two closely-spaced events on the

seismic section
 We can distinguish two events:
- vertically, depending on:
- the signs and magnitudes of the events
- the separation between the events
- dominant frequency
- horizontally, depending on:
- the receiver spacing
- dominant frequency
- velocity
- dip angle
Seismic resolution
Vertical
shift =T = 24 ms
s hift =/2 = 12 ms
s hift =/4 = 6 ms
s hift =/6 = 4 ms
Original wavelet
 = 24 ms
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

Rock velocities (km/s)
Rock 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Alluvium ************
Sand *********
Mud ******
Shale **************
*****************************
************************
***********************
Sandstone *************************************
******************************
**************************
********************************
**********************
Limestone **********************************
**************************************
***************************
*********************************
********************************************
Dolomite **************************************
**********************
Anhydrite **********************
Gypsum ****************
Salt **************
Granite ********************
Gabbro ***********
But velocity also depends on the porosity and fluid content
Most rocks are composed of a matrix with pore space. The matrix consists
of grains and perhaps some cements.
pore space matrix
The porosity is defined as the percentage of empty space, anywhere from roughly 0 to
30% (larger values possible, but rare). The pore space is filled with fluid or gas (e.g.
water, oil, gas).
The behavior of seismic waves in porous media is complicated. Theoretical approaches

often work well for laboratory data but may require measurements that are difficult in
the field. Mixes (gas/fluid) are especially difficult.
Seismic velocity
Model of a sedimentary rock
 A sedimentary rock is modeled as a packing of spheres.

 The packing pattern and sphere-size distribution control
the amount of pore space.
 Porosity () is the ratio between pore (Vp) and bulk (Vb)
volumes:
 = Vp/Vb
Seismic velocity
Model of a sedimentary rock
Cubic packing Orthorhombic packing
least compact ( = 47%) most compact ( = 26%)
Diagonal Diagonal
Front view Front view
cross-section cross-section
Seismic velocity
Porosity relations
 Porosity is related to rock, matrix, and fluid densities (r,

m, and f):
r=  f + (1-) m
 Porosity is related to rock, matrix, and fluid seismic

velocities (Vr, Vm, and Vf) by the time-average (Wylie’s)
equation.
Seismic velocity
Time-average equation
Rock Matrix
Fluid
Vf Vm
Vr
1/Vr= /Vf + (1-)/Vm

Seismic velocity
Types
Earth’s surface
ith layer
Nth
layer
ti = vertical traveltime across ith layer tN = vertical traveltime across Nth layer
Vi = interval velocity of ith layer VN = interval velocity of Nth layer
Ti1 = total vertical time to top of ith layer TN1 = total vertical time to top of Nth layer
Ti2 = total vertical time to bottom of ith layer TN2 = total vertical time to bottom of Nth layer
Seismic velocity
Types
 Average velocity
 V i  ti
V  i 1
N
  ti
i 1
Seismic velocity
Types
 RMS velocity
N 1/2
 V2  t
i i
V  i 1
N
  t
i
i 1
Seismic velocity
Types
 Stacking velocity
– found by fitting a hyperbola to the near-offset T-X curve.
– usually determined by velocity analysis during seismic data
processing
– At small offsets, RMS and stacking velocities are nearly
equal.
Seismic velocity
Types
Vtrue
T2 VRMS (tangent to Vtrue at X = 0)
Vs (best-fit line to Vtrue)
X2
Seismic velocity
Types
 Interval (Dix) velocity

– calculated from stacking (RMS) velocities:
1/ 2
 2
t2 
2
t1 
Vi   V 2 V 1

 t 2  t1 
V1, V2 and t1, t2: stacking velocities and zero-

offset traveltimes to top and bottom of ith layer
Seismic velocity
Common calculation methods
 Well data:
– sonic log
– well shooting
– VSP
 Seismic (T-X) data:
– T2-X2 method: by fitting a straight line to the T2-X2 curve to
find the stacking velocity
– T-TNMO method: by searching for the velocity that produces
the best NMO correction.
Velocity determination
T-TNMO method
X
Low Vs
As T0 After
Vtrue
High Vs NMO
Before
NMO
Vtrue
Low Vs
High Vs
V
T
As: peak-amplitude of
TNMO  X2 / (2T0 Vs2)
the stacked trace
Seismic velocity
Uses of velocity data
 Geometrical spreading correction

 NMO correction and stacking
 Migration
 Interval velocity estimation
 Geological interpretation
 Ray tracing
 Time-to-depth conversion
Seismic data acquisition
Land equipment
 Sources
– Dynamite
 Impulsive
 Ricker wavelet
– Vibroseis
 Non-impulsive
 Long sweep
 Autocorrelated
 Klauder wavelet
Land equipment
 Detectors
– Geophone
 coil hanging inside cylindrical magnet by spring
 Magnet moves with ground.
 Coil stays fixed by spring inertia.
 electric current produced
 measure ground velocity
 important to plant them firmly and vertically
 S•Geophone (SmartGeophone, SMG)
 FUNCTION
 Signal conditioning and digitizing of seismic signals
 Interpretation of command, returning status and geophone response in digital format via a twisted quad wire
telemetry bus
 Tests the performance of each geophone and electronics
 PHYSICAL
 Lightweight, watertight, rugged housing
 SPECIFICATIONS
 Input Impedance 1KΩ damping (>25 without damping), || 5nF
 Preamp Gains 0dB, 12dB, 24dB, 36dB
 Full Scale Input Levels
 0dB 5Vpp
 12dB 1.25Vpp
 24dB 312.5mVpp
 36dB 78.1mVpp
 Offset digitally zeroed at all gains
 Sampling Interval 0.25, 0.5, 1ms, 2ms
 Bandwidth (-3dB) 428Hz
 Stop Band Attenuation
(above Nyquist measured -6dB below full scale) >130dB
 Passband Ripple (below 400Hz) 0.01dB
 Passband Phase Characteristic linear
 Signal to Noise Ratio
(RMS to RMS, 800 Ohm terminated input)
0dB 123dB (typ) >120dB
12dB 122dB (typ) >118dB
24dB 115dB (typ) >112dB
36dB 103dB (typ) >100dB
 Total Harmonic Distortion
(measured -6dB below full scale, 31.25Hz)
12dB 110dB (typ) >100dB
24dB 110dB (typ) >100dB
 Gain Accuracy (absolute) 1% (typical)
 Gain Accuracy (relative at different gains) 0.4% (typical)
 Power Consumption 250mW (typical)
 Operating Temperature -40ºC to 75ºC
 S•Geophone String (SMG String)
 Multiple SMG sensors wired together comprise an SMG String.
 An SMG string consists of four basic components:
 A string connector
 SMG's
 Cable segments
 String terminator
 Due to the modular design of the SMG string, individual
components may be easily removed and replaced. Although
SMGs are wired together, each sensor returns data separately
from the others.
 In a conventional analog geophone string, sensors are
electrically wired together in a serial and/or parallel manner.
This means that one improperly planted or damaged
conventional sensor could corrupt the data from an entire
string. On the other hand, with the SMG String each SMG
returns its data separately from the rest of the SMG sensors
providing complete data isolation from one sensor to the
next.
Land acquisition
•"vibroseis" - vibrating truck sends a "chirp" signal into ground

•dynamite - good signal but expensive (drill holes, environmental concerns)
•mountains, rivers, swamps, cities, etc can cause problems for geometry and
loss of fold
•energy lost in top layer
•"ground roll" (surface waves) causes noise
• must make (sometimes large) corrections for varying elevations and shallow
velocity changes ("statics")
• land-water transition is often difficult – may be gaps in data
•Vibroseis creates a chirp signal
•Must be removed to yield data
•Creates a “Klauder” wavelet
Marine equipment
 Sources
– Air gun
 blows high-pressure air into water
 most commonly used
 Detectors
– Hydrophone
 made of a piezoelectric material
 generates voltage when stressed
 measure fluid acceleration
 independent of wave direction
 Depth is 10-20 m under water.
 mounted in a streamer
 streamer length up to 6 km
Marine acquisition
• source is usually airguns – compressed air explosions
• the bubbles oscillate so use a "tuned" array
• hydrophones dragged behind ship and are suspended below surface of water (and
always at same elevation)
• geometry usually pretty good but lines tend to drift to one side due to currents, etc
• multiples can be a problem, especially in shallow water and hard bottom (no mud)
• good at getting energy into the rocks (especially with soft bottom)
• geophones at same elevation; no statics corrections required
• data is better than land data
Seismic reflection acquisition
Goal: to generate image of subsurface (and measure depth)

Photos courtesy P. Henkart
Recording
1. Signal from detectors is digitized and amplified.

2. Filters are applied to remove unwanted frequencies.
3. Traces are displayed for quality control.
4. Data is recorded and stored in tapes for later retrieval
and processing.
Recording
Earth’s surface Filter

R
S
A/D Amplifier
Converter
Trace
display
Subsurface reflector Recording
Tape
storage
2-D Field methods
The CMP method
 Stands for: Common midpoint

 a.k.a: CDP & CRP
 Points in the subsurface are covered more than once by
different source-receiver pairs.
 Traces belonging to same CMP form a CMP gather.
 Number of traces in a CMP gather is called the fold of that
CMP.
 Common CMP folds are 240, 480, & 960.
 Stacking M traces in a CMP gather increases S/N by a
factor of M1/2.
2-D Field methods
The CMP method
 Stacking chart
– Horizontal axis indicates geophone location.
– Vertical axis indicates source location.
– used to sort traces into gathers
– on the chart:
 Points along one diagonal represent a CMP gather.
 Points along the other diagonal represent an offset gather.
 Points along a horizontal line represent a shot gather.
 Points along a vertical line represent a geophone gather.
2-D Field methods
Spreads
 Spread refers to the relative locations of source and

receivers.
 Types
– Split: source at center of receivers line
– end-on: source at end of receivers line
– Broadside: source is offset perpendicular to receivers line
– Cross: two crossing receiver lines
2-D Field methods
Split spread
2-D Field methods
End-on spread
2-D Field methods
Arrays
 Geophone array: the pattern of a group of geophones that

feeds a single channel (trace).
 Source array: the pattern of a group of sources fired
simultaneously.
 mainly used to attenuate horizontally traveling ground roll
 could be 1-D or 2-D
 A ground roll of wavelength  is ideally attenuated when
geophone spacing is /2.

Introduction To The Seismic Reflection Exploration Method

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Introduction To The Seismic Reflection Exploration Method

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Chapter 1

Introduction to the Seismic

 We send artificially generated seismic waves into the

 particle motion parallel to propagation direction

 particle motion perpendicular to propagation direction

 travel along the Earth's surface (horizontally)

Surface Earth’s surface

 What happens to a wave as it propagates through a

 Wave spreads over a larger surface as it travels through

 A part of wave energy is dissipated into the earth as heat.

 When a wave encounters an interface between two layers,

Sini Sinr Sint Sinr Sint

 occurs when wave encounters sharp discontinuities in the

1: density in incident medium

 very slight deviation from the normal-incidence case

 high deviation from the normal-incidence case

 Rock-rock RC < |0.3|

 Calculating layer velocity and thickness

 T2 = T02 cos2 + (X+2H sin)2/V2

 Calculating layer velocity, dip, and thickness

-Then, we use them as follows:

 T-X curve is NOT a hyperbola.

 Calculating layer interval velocities and thicknesses

3. Compute layer interval thicknesses

 generated by waves that have been reflected once from an

Ground roll Direct P-wave

Primary Head wave

vibroseis marine dynamite dynamite

The goal of seismic reflection processing is to construct a zero-offset section,

The Mars prospect, US Gulf Coast – 700 million barrels

The signal to noise improvement should be N ½

This is referred to as stacking.

Fold refers to the number of traces

If we move the shot we can get bounces at the same point

• For straight lines on flat terrain, this is simple

1. Collect data (shot gathers)

*also known as common midpoint (CMP)

 Ideally, we want an impulse of zero width.

 ability to distinguish two closely-spaced events on the

-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40

pore space matrix

The behavior of seismic waves in porous media is complicated. Theoretical approaches

 A sedimentary rock is modeled as a packing of spheres.

Cubic packing Orthorhombic packing

least compact ( = 47%) most compact ( = 26%)

 Porosity is related to rock, matrix, and fluid densities (r,

 Porosity is related to rock, matrix, and fluid seismic

1/Vr= /Vf + (1-)/Vm

 Interval (Dix) velocity

V1, V2 and t1, t2: stacking velocities and zero-

 Geometrical spreading correction

•"vibroseis" - vibrating truck sends a "chirp" signal into ground

Goal: to generate image of subsurface (and measure depth)

1. Signal from detectors is digitized and amplified.

Earth’s surface Filter

Subsurface reflector Recording

 Stands for: Common midpoint

 Spread refers to the relative locations of source and

 Geophone array: the pattern of a group of geophones that

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