MANE 4240 & CIVL 4240

Introduction to Finite Elements

Prof. Suvranu De

Development of Truss
Equations
Reading assignment:

Chapter 3: Sections 3.1-3.9 + Lecture notes

Summary:

• Stiffness matrix of a bar/truss element

• Coordinate transformation
• Stiffness matrix of a truss element in 2D space
•Problems in 2D truss analysis (including multipoint
constraints)
•3D Truss element
Trusses: Engineering structures that are composed only
of two-force members. e.g., bridges, roof supports
Actual trusses: Airy structures composed of slender
members (I-beams, channels, angles, bars etc) joined
together at their ends by welding, riveted connections or
large bolts and pins

A typical truss structure

Gusset plate
Ideal trusses:
Assumptions
• Ideal truss members are connected only at their ends.
•Ideal truss members are connected by frictionless pins (no
moments)
• The truss structure is loaded only at the pins
• Weights of the members are neglected

A typical truss structure

Frictionless pin
These assumptions allow us to idealize each truss
member as a two-force member (members loaded only
at their extremities by equal opposite and collinear
forces)
member in
compression

member in
tension

Connecting pin
 FEM analysis scheme
Step 1: Divide the truss into bar/truss elements connected to
each other through special points (“nodes”)

Step 2: Describe the behavior of each bar element (i.e. derive its
stiffness matrix and load vector in local AND global coordinate
system)

Step 3: Describe the behavior of the entire truss by putting

together the behavior of each of the bar elements (by assembling
their stiffness matrices and load vectors)

Step 4: Apply appropriate boundary conditions and solve

 Stiffness matrix of bar element

E, A

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

L: Length of bar
A: Cross sectional area of bar
E: Elastic (Young’s) modulus of bar
û(x̂) :displacement of bar as a function of local coordinate x̂ of bar
The strain in the bar at x̂ dû
ε(x̂) 
dx̂
The stress in the bar (Hooke’s law)
 (x̂)  E ε(x̂)
 d̂ 2x
Tension in the bar
T(x̂)  EAε  x̂  x̂
û(x̂)  1  d̂1x  d̂ 2x
x̂ d̂1x x̂
 L L

L
Assume that the displacement û(x̂) is varying linearly along the bar
 x̂  x̂
û(x̂)  1  d̂1x  d̂ 2x
 L L
dû d̂ 2x  d̂1x
Then, strain is constant along the bar: ε  dx̂  L
E

Stress is also constant along the bar:   Eε  d̂ 2x  d̂1x
L

Tension is constant along the bar: T  EAε 
EA

d̂ 2x  d̂ 1x 
L
k

The bar is acting like a spring with stiffness k  EA

L
Recall the lecture on springs
E, A

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Two nodes: 1, 2
Nodal displacements: d̂1x d̂ 2x
Nodal forces: f̂1x f̂ 2x
EA
Spring constant: k 
L
Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
f̂1x   k - k  d̂1x 
f̂  k̂ d̂     
f̂ 2x  - k k  d̂ 2x 
Element nodal          
Element force
Element displacement f̂ k̂ d̂
vector
stiffness vector
matrix
What if we have 2 bars?
E1, A1
E2, A2

L1 L2

This is equivalent to the following system of springs

E1A1 E 2A 2
k1  k2 
L1 L2
x
Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x d2x d3x

PROBLEM
Problem 1: Find the stresses in the two-bar assembly loaded as
shown below
E, 2A
E, A
1 P
2 3
L L
Solution: This is equivalent to the following system of springs
2EA EA
k1  k2 
L L
x
Element 1 2 Element 23
1
d1x d2x d3x

We will first compute the displacement at node 2 and then the

stresses within each element
 The global set of equations can be generated using the technique
developed in the lecture on “springs”
 k1 k1 0   d1x   F1x 
 k k  k     
 1 1 2 k2  d 2 x    F2 x 
 0 k2 k2   d3 x   F3 x 
here d1x  d 3 x  0 and F2 x  P

Hence, the above set of equations may be explicitly written as

 k1d 2 x  F1x (1)
(k1  k2 )d 2 x  P (2)
 k2 d 2 x  F3 x (3)
P PL
From equation (2) d 2 x  
k1  k2 3EA
To calculate the stresses:
For element #1 first compute the element strain
d 2 x  d1x d 2 x P
 (1)
  
L L 3EA
and then the stress as
P
 (1)
 E (1)
 (element in tension)
3A
Similarly, in element # 2
d3 x  d 2 x d2x P
 
(2)
 
L L 3EA
P
  E  
(2) (2)
(element in compression)
3A
© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Inter-element continuity of a two-bar structure

Bars in a truss have various orientations

member in
compression

member in
tension

Connecting pin
 d 2y , f 2y
x̂
dˆ 2y , fˆ2y  0 d̂ 2x , f̂ 2x
y ŷ
d 2x , f 2x
d1y , f1y
dˆ 1y , fˆ1y  0 θ
d̂1x , f̂1x d1x , f1x

x
At node 1: At node 2:
d̂1y d̂ 2y

d1y d 2y
θ d̂1x θ d̂ 2x
d1x d 2x f̂ 2y  0
f̂1y  0

f1y f 2y
θ f̂1x θ f̂ 2x
f1x f 2x
 In the global coordinate system, the vector of nodal
displacements and loads
d1x  f1x 
d  f 
 1y   1y 
d   ; f  
d 2x f 2x
   
d 2y  f 2y 

Our objective is to obtain a relation of the form

f  k d
41 44 41

Where k is the 4x4 element stiffness matrix in global coordinate

system
 The key is to look at the local coordinates
x̂
y ŷ dˆ 2y , fˆ2y  0
d̂ 2x , f̂ 2x
f̂1x   k - k  d̂1x 
θ     
dˆ 1y , fˆ1y  0
f̂ 2x  - k k  d̂ 2x 
d̂1x , f̂1x
EA
x k
L
Rewrite as f̂ 
1x k 0 - k 0 d̂1x 
     
f̂1y   0 0 0 0 d̂1y  f̂  k̂ d̂
   
f̂ 2x  - k 0 k 0 d̂ 2x 
f̂   0  
0 0 0 d̂
 2y   2y 
NOTES

1. Assume that there is no stiffness in the local^y direction.

2. If you consider the displacement at a point along the local x

direction as a vector, then the components of that vector along the
global x and y directions are the global x and y displacements.

3. The expanded stiffness matrix in the local coordinates is

symmetric and singular.
NOTES
5. In local coordinates we have f̂  k̂ d̂
41 44 41

But or goal is to obtain the following relationship

f  k d
41 44 41

Hence, need a relationship between d̂ and d

and between f̂ and f d̂1y
d̂1x  Need to understand
d1x   
d1y
how the components
d  θ d̂1x
  d̂1y  of a vector change
d   1y  d̂    d1x
d̂ 2y with coordinate
d 2x
  d̂ 2x  transformation
d 2y  d̂  d 2y
 2y  θ d̂ 2x
d 2x
 Transformation of a vector in two dimensions

y vx v y cos θ Angle  is
ŷ x̂
v̂ x measured positive
v̂ y
θ in the counter
v vy
v x sin θ clockwise direction
from the +x axis)
θ
v y sin θ x
v x cos θ

The vector v has components (vx, vy) in the global coordinate system
^
and (v^x, vy) in the local coordinate system. From geometry
v̂ x  v x cos θ  v y sin θ
v̂ y   v x sin θ  v y cos θ
In matrix form
 v̂ x   cos θ sin θ   v x 
    
 y    sin θ cos θ   v y 
v̂
Or Direction cosines
 v̂ x   l m   v x  l  cos 
   v  where
v̂
 y   m l  y m  sin 
Transformation matrix for a single vector in 2D
 l m v̂  T
*
v
*
T   relates
  m l 
 v̂ x   v x  are components of the same
where v̂    and v   
 v̂ y   v y  vector in local and global
coordinates, respectively.
Relationship between d̂ and d for the truss element
d̂1y
At node 1 d̂1x  * d1x 
 T   d1y
d̂1y  d1y  θ d̂1x
d1x d̂ 2y
At node 2 d̂ 2x  * d 2x 
 T   d 2y
d̂ 2y  d 2y  θ d̂ 2x
Putting these together d̂  Td d 2x

d̂1x   l m 0 0  d1x 
  
d̂1y   m l 0 0  d1y  T 
T * 0
*
  d  44
0 T 
d̂ 2x   0 0 l 
m  2x 
d̂   0 0
 d 
 m l   2y 
  2y           
T d
d̂
 Relationship between f̂ and f for the truss element
At node 1 f̂1x  f̂1y
* f1x 
 T  
f̂1y  f1y  f1y
θ f̂1x
f̂ 2y
At node 2 f̂ 2x  * f 2x  f1x
 T   f 2y
f̂ 2y  f 2y  θ f̂ 2x
Putting these together f̂  Tf f 2x

f̂1x   l m 0 0  f1x 
  
f̂1y   m l 0 0  f1y  T 
T * 0
*
  f  44
0 T 
f̂ 2x   0 0 l 
m  2x 
f̂   0 0
 f 
 m l   2y 
 2y           
T f
f̂
Important property of the transformation matrix T

The transformation matrix is orthogonal, i.e. its inverse is its

transpose

1 T
T T

Use the property that l2+m2=1

 Putting all the pieces together

x̂ f̂  T f
y ŷ d̂ 2y , f̂ 2y
d̂ 2x , f̂ 2x d̂  T d
θ f̂  k̂ d̂
d̂1y , f̂1y
d̂1x , f̂1x
 Tf  k̂ T d
x

 f  T k̂ T d
  
1

The desired relationship is f  k d k
41 44 41

T
Where k  T k̂ T is the element stiffness matrix in the
44 44 44 44 global coordinate system
  l m 0 0  k 0 - k 0
 m l  0
0 0 0 0 0
T  k̂  
 0 0 l m  - k 0 k 0
   
 0 0 m l  0 0 0 0

 l2 lm  l 2  lm 
 2 
T EA  lm m 2
 lm  m 
k  T k̂ T 
L   l 2  lm l2 lm 
 
 lm  m
2 2
lm m 
Computation of the direction cosines

2 (x2,y2)
x2  x1 L
l  cos  
L
y y θ
m  sin   2 1
L 1
(x1,y1)

What happens if I reverse the node numbers?

x1  x2 1 (x1,y1)
l '  cos    l L
L
y1  y2
m'  sin    m θ
L 2 (x ,y )
2 2
Question: Does the stiffness matrix change?
 Example Bar element for stiffness matrix evaluation
© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™ E  30 106 psi
A  2 in 2
L  60 in
  30 3
l  cos 30 
2
1
m  sin 30 
 3 3 3 3  2
   
 4 4 4 4 
 3 1 3 1 
k

30  106  2   4  4

4

4  lb
60  3 3 3 3  in
  
 4 4 4 4 
 3 1 3 1 
  
 4 4 4 4 
 Computation of element strains
© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Recall that the element strain is

d̂ 1x 
 
d̂ 2x  d̂ 1x 1 d̂ 1y 
ε    1 0 1 0  
L L d̂ 2x 
d̂ 
 2y 
1
   1 0 1 0 d̂
L
1
   1 0 1 0 T d
L
  l m 0 0 
 m l 0 0 
1
ε    1 0 1 0  d
L  0 0 l m 
 
 0 0 m l 
1
   l  m l m d
L
d 1x 
d 
1  
   l  m l m  1y 
L d
 2x 
d 2y 
Computation of element stresses stress and tension

Recall that the element stress is

  Eε 
E
L
  E
d̂ 2x  d̂ 1x    l
L
m l m d

Recall that the element tension is

EA
T  EAε   l m l m d
L
Steps in solving a problem

Step 1: Write down the node-element connectivity table

linking local and global nodes; also form the table of
direction cosines (l, m)
Step 2: Write down the stiffness matrix of each element in
global coordinate system with global numbering

Step 3: Assemble the element stiffness matrices to form the

global stiffness matrix for the entire structure using the
node element connectivity table

Step 4: Incorporate appropriate boundary conditions

Step 5: Solve resulting set of reduced equations for the unknown

displacements
Step 6: Compute the unknown nodal forces
Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2

1 1 2
2 2 3

3 3 1

1 2 (x2,y2)
L
El 1 60
El 3
θ
2 60 60 3 1 (x ,y )
1 1
El 2
Stiffness matrix of element 1 Stiffness matrix of element 2
d1x d1y d2x d2y d2x d2y d3x d3y
  d1x   d2x
   
k
(1)
  d1y k
( 2)
  d2y
  d2x   d3x
   
  d2y   d3y

Stiffness matrix of element 3

There are 4 degrees of
d3x d3y d1x d1y
freedom (dof) per
  d3x element (2 per node)
 
k
( 3)
  d3y
  d1x
 
  d1y
 (1)
k
Global stiffness matrix
d1x d1y d2x d2y d3x d3y
  d1x
  (2)
  d1y k
  d2x
K  d2y
 
  d3x
( 3)
k
  d3y
  66

How do you incorporate boundary conditions?

 Example 2 The length of bars 12 and 23 are equal (L)
y E: Young’s modulus
3 A: Cross sectional area of each bar
El#2 P2
Solve for
P1 (1) d and d
2x 2y

El#1 (2) Stresses in each bar

2
45o
x Solution
1
Step 1: Node element connectivity table

ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2

1 1 2
2 2 3
Table of nodal coordinates
Node x y
1 0 0
2 Lcos45 Lsin45

3 0 2Lsin45

Table of direction cosines

ELEMENT Length x2  x1 y y
l m 2 1
length length
1 L cos45 sin45
2 L -cos45 sin45
Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates
with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1
 l2 lm l 2 lm 
 2 
(1) EA  lm m 2
lm m 
k 
L  l 2 lm l2 lm 
 
  lm  m 2
lm 2
m 

d1x d1y d2x d2y

 1 1 1 1  d1x
 1 1 1 1 
EA   d1y

2L  1 1 1 1  d2x
 
 1 1 1 1  d2y
 Stiffness matrix of element 2
d2x d2y d3x d3y
 1 1 1 1  d2x
 1 1 1 1 
(2) EA   d2y
k 
2L  1 1 1 1  d3x
 
 1 1 1 1  d3y
Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix

 1 1 1 1 0 0 
 1 1 1 1 0 0 
 
EA  1 1 2 0 1 1 
K  
2L  1 1 0 2 1 1
 0 0 1 1 1 1
 
 0 0 1 1 1 1 

The final set of equations is Kd  F

Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions
 0 
 0 
 
d2 x 
d  
d 2 y 
 0 
 
 0 

Hence reduced set of equations to solve for unknown

displacements at node 2

EA  2 0   d 2 x   P1 
  
2L 
0

2   d 2 y   P2 
Step 5: Solve for unknown displacements

 P1L 
d2 x   EA 
 
  
d
 2 y   P2 L 

 EA 
Step 6: Obtain stresses in the elements 0

For element #1:  d1x  0

d 
E 1 1 1 1   1y 
  
(1)
   
L 2 2 2 2  d2 x 
d 2 y 
E PP
 (d 2 x  d 2 y )  1 2
2L A 2
For element #2: d2 x 
d 
E 1 1 1 1   2y  0
 (2)       
L 2 2 2 2   d3 x  0
 d3 y 
E P1  P2
 (d 2 x  d 2 y ) 
2L A 2
 Multi-point constraints

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Figure 3-19 Plane truss with inclined boundary

conditions at node 3 (see problem worked out in class)
Problem 3: For the plane truss
P=1000 kN,
y L=length of elements 1 and 2 = 1m
P El#2 3 E=210 GPa
A = 6×10-4m2 for elements 1 and 2
2 = 6 2 ×10-4 m2 for element 3
El#1
El#3
Determine the unknown displacements
45 o
and reaction forces.
1 x
Solution
Step 1: Node element connectivity table
ELEMENT Node 1 Node 2
1 1 2
2 2 3
3 1 3
Table of nodal coordinates
Node x y
1 0 0
2 0 L

3 L L

Table of direction cosines

ELEMENT Length x2  x1 y y
l m 2 1
length length
1 L 0 1
2 L 1 0

3 L 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
Step 2: Stiffness matrix of each element in global coordinates
with global numbering
Stiffness matrix of element 1
 l2 lm l 2 lm 
 
(1) EA  lm m 2
lm  m 2

k 
L  l 2 lm l 2 lm 
 
  lm  m 2
lm m 2


d1x d1y d2x d2y

0 0 0 0  d1x
-4 
(210  10 )(6 10 )  0 1
9
0 1  d1y

1 0 0 0 0  d2x
 
 0 1 0 1  d2y
Stiffness matrix of element 2 d2x d2y d3x d3y
1 0 1 0  d2x
-4 
(2) (210 10 )(6 10 )  0
9
0 0 0  d2y
k 
1  1 0 1 0  d3x
 
0 0 0 0  d3y
Stiffness matrix of element 3
d1x d1y d3x d3y
 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5  d1x
 
(3) (210 109 )(6 2 10-4 )  0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5  d1y
k 
2  0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5  d3x
 
 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5  d3y
Step 3: Assemble the global stiffness matrix

 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5

 0.5 1.5 0 1 0.5 0.5
 
 0 0 1 0 1 0 
K  1260 10 
5
 N/m
 0 1 0 1 0 0 
 0.5 0.5 1 0 1.5 0.5 
 
 0.5 0.5 0 0 0.5 0.5 

The final set of equations is Kd  F Eq(1)

Step 4: Incorporate boundary conditions y

x
 0  y
 0  3
  P El#2

d 2 x 

d   2
 0  El#1
 d3 x  El#3
 
d
 3y 
  45 o

1 x

Also, d 3 y  0 in the local coordinate system of element 3

How do I convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)

coordinates?
 y

x
 F1x  y
F  3
 1y  P El#2

 P  
F   2
F
 2y  El#1
 F3 x  El#3
 
 F3 y 
  45o
x
1

Also, F 3 x  0 in the local coordinate system of element 3

How do I convert this to a boundary condition in the global (x,y)

coordinates?
 Using coordinate transformations

d 3x 
  l m   d3 x  1
   m    lm


 3y 
d   l  d3 y  2

 1 1   1 

d 3x 

  2 2   d  
 2
 d 3x  d 3y  

      3x    
  1 1  d3 y  1
 
 
d 3 y   d  d 

 2 2  2

3 y 3 x



d 3 y  0 (Multi-point constraint)
1

 d 3y 
2
 d3 y  d3 x   0

 d3 y  d3 x  0 Eq (2)
 Similarly for the forces at node 3

F 3x 
  l m   F3 x  1
   m    lm


 3y 
F   n   F3 y  2

 1 1   1 
  
 F 3x 

2 2   F  
 2
 F3x  F3y  

     3x    
  1 1   F3 y  1
 
 
F 3y   F  F 

 2 2 
 2
3 y 3 x



F 3 x  0
1

 F 3x 
2
 F3 y  F3 x   0

 F3 y  F3 x  0 Eq (3)
Therefore we need to solve the following equations simultaneously

Kd  F Eq(1)
d3 y  d3 x  0 Eq(2)

F3 y  F3 x  0 Eq(3)

Incorporate boundary conditions and reduce Eq(1) to

1 1 0  d 2 x   P 
   
1260  105 
 1 1.5 0.5 
  3x  
d F
 3x 
 0.5 d  F 
0 0.5   3y   3y 
 Write these equations out explicitly

1260  105 ( d 2 x  d 3 x )  P Eq(4)

1260  105 (  d 2 x  1.5d3 x  0.5d3 y )  F3 x Eq(5)
1260  105 (0.5d 3 x  0.5d 3 y )  F3 y Eq(6)

Add Eq (5) and (6)

1260  105 (  d 2 x  2d3 x  d3 y )  F3 x  F3 y  0 using Eq(3)

 1260  105 (  d 2 x  3d 3 x )  0 using Eq(2)

 d 2 x  3d 3 x Eq(7)
 1260  105 (3d 3 x  d 3 x )  P
Plug this into Eq(4)
 2520  105 d 3 x  106
  d 3 x  0.003968m
d 2 x  3d 3 x  0.0119m

Compute the reaction forces

 F1x  0 0.5 0.5 
F  0
 1y 
 0.5 0.5  d 
  2x 
 
 F2 y   1260  10  0 0   d3 x 
5
0
F    
 1 1.5 0.5   d3 y 
 3x


 F3 y 
 
0 0.5 0.5 
 500 
 500 

 

  0  kN
 500 
 

 500 
Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

In general, we will have a stiffness matrix of the form

 k11 k12 k13 

K  k 21 k 22 k 23 
k 31 k 32 k 33 

And the finite element force-displacement relation

 k11 k12 k13   d1   F1 
k k k  d   F 
 21 22 23   2   2
k 31 k 32 k 33  d 3  F3 
 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

The first equation

is Force equilibrium
k11d1  k12 d 2  k13d 3  F1 equation at node 1

Columns of the global stiffness matrix

What if d1=1, d2=0, d3=0 ?
While d.o.f 2 and 3 are held fixed
F1  k11 Force along d.o.f 1 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1
F2  k 21 Force along d.o.f 2 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1
F3  k 31 Force along d.o.f 3 due to unit displacement at d.o.f 1

Similarly we obtain the physical significance of the other

entries of the global stiffness matrix
In general

k ij = keeping
Force at d.o.f ‘i’ due to unit displacement at d.o.f ‘j’
all the other d.o.fs fixed
Example The length of bars 12 and 23 are equal (L)
y E: Young’s modulus
3 A: Cross sectional area of each bar
El#2 P2
Solve for d2x and d2y using the “physical
P1 interpretation” approach
El#1 2
45o
x Solution
1
Notice that the final set of equations will be of the form

 k11 k12   d 2 x   P1 
k    
 21 k22  d 2 y   P2 
Where k11, k12, k21 and k22 will be determined using the
“physical interpretation” approach
To obtain the first column
 k11  d  1
1   apply 2 x

y  2  1.cos(45) 
 k 21  d2 y  0
F2y=k21
2 y
3
F2y=k21
El#2 F2x=k11 T2
2 2’ F2x=k11
El#1 T1 2
x 1 x
1 1  1.cos(45) 
2
d2x=1

Force equilibrium Force-deformation relations

EA
F x  k11  T1 cos(45)  T2 cos(45)  0 T1  1
L
F y  k21  T1 sin(45)  T2 sin(45)  0 EA
T2   2
L
Combining force equilibrium and force-deformation relations
 T1  T2  EA
k11    1   2 
2 2L
 T1  T2  EA
k21    1   2 
2 2L
Now use the geometric (compatibility) conditions (see figure)
1
1  1.cos(45) 
2
1
 2  1.cos(45) 
2
Finally
EA EA 2 EA
k11   1   2   ( )
2L 2L 2 L
EA
k21   1   2   0
2L
To obtain the second column
 k12  d  0
  apply 2 x

y k22 y d2 y  1
3 1
 2  1.cos(45)   F2y=k22
2
El#2 2’ d2y=1 T2
2 F2x=k12
El#1 T1 2
x 1 x
1 1  1.cos(45) 
2

Force equilibrium Force-deformation relations

EA
F x  k12  T1 cos(45)  T2 cos(45)  0 T1  1
L
F y  k22  T1 sin(45)  T2 sin(45)  0 EA
T2   2
L
Combining force equilibrium and force-deformation relations
 T1  T2  EA
k12    1   2 
2 2L
 T1  T2  EA
k22    1   2 
2 2L
Now use the geometric (compatibility) conditions (see figure)
1
1  1.cos(45) 
2
1
 2  1.cos(45)   This negative is due to compression
2
Finally
EA
k12   1   2   0
2L
EA EA 2 EA
k22   1 2
    ( ) 
2L 2L 2 L
© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™ 3D Truss (space truss)
In local coordinate system f̂  k̂ d̂
f̂ 1x  d̂ 1x 
   k 0 0 k 0 0  
f̂ 1y   0 0 0 0 0 0 d̂ 1y 
    
f̂ 1z   0 0 0 0 0 0 d̂ 1z 
   
f̂ 2x   k 0 0 k 0 0 d̂ 2x 
f̂   0 0 0 0 0 0 d̂ 
 2y     2y 
f̂   0 0 0 0 0 0  
 2z  d̂ 2z 
 The transformation matrix for a single vector in 3D
*
d̂  T d

 l1 m1 n1  l1, m1 and n1 are the direction cosines of x^

T  l 2 n2 
*
m2
l1  cos  x
l3 m3 n3  m1  cos  y

© 2002 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

n1  cos  z
Transformation matrix T relating the local and global
displacement and load vectors of the truss element

d̂  T d
T * 0
T  *
f̂  T f
66
0 T 

Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates

T
k  T k̂ T
66 66 66 66
  l1 2 l1 m1 l1 n1  l1
2
 l1 m1  l1 n1 
 2 2 
 l1 m1 m1 m1 n1  l1m1  m1  m1n1 
T

EA l1 n1 m1 n1 n1
2
l1 n1 m1 n1  n1
2 
k  T k̂ T   2 2 
L   l1  l1 m1  l1 n1 l1 l1 m1 l1 n1 
 l m  m 2  m n l m m
2
m n 
 1 1 1 1 1
2
1 1 1 1 1
2

  l1 n1  m1 n1  n1 l1 n1 m1 n1 n1 

Notice that the direction cosines of only the local ^x axis enter the
k matrix