UNIT III: Lubricants

Soami P. Satsangee
CHM 181
7/10/2015
 Contents
• Introduction
Functions of Lubricants
• Mechanism
a. Thick Film Lubrication (Hydrodynamic Lubrication)
b. Thin Film Lubrication (Boundary Lubrication)
c. Extreme Pressure Lubrication
• Video on lubricants
• Classifications
Liquids, Semisolids, Solids & Emulsions
• On any metal surface there are irregularities on the
surface in terms of valleys and peaks which are known as
“Asperities”. Due to this efficiency of machine decreases.

• Resistance in moving/Rubbing parts- Friction.

Causes wear and tear & energy is wasted.
Hence, efficiency is decreased.

• Lubricants: Reduces Friction

Lubrication: Process of reducing friction
 Functions of Lubricants
(1) It reduces wear and tear of the surfaces by avoiding
direct metal to metal contact between the rubbing surfaces,
i.e. by introducing lubricants between the two surfaces.
(2) It reduces expansion of metal due to frictional heat and
destruction of material.
(3) It acts as coolant of metal.
(4 ) It acts like a seal preventing entry of dust and leakage of
gases in IC engine.
(5) It reduces maintenance cost of machines.
(6) It prevents corrosion.
 Mechanism
The phenomenon of lubrication can be
explained with the
(a) Thick-Film lubrication (Fluid-Film or
hydrodynamic lubrication)
(b) Thin Film lubrication (Boundary lubrication)
(c) Extreme Pressure lubrication
 Fluid Film/Thick Film/Hydrodynamic
Mechanism
Thick Film:
• Moving/Sliding surfaces are separated by thick film of 1000Å. No direct surface to surface
contact.
• Resistance is only due to internal resistance of lubricant particles.
• Viscosity should be minimum.
• Load is low, speed is fair

• Example:
Delicate instruments & light machines like watches, clocks, guns, sewing
machines, etc.
Lubricant is:
• Hydrocarbons oils (12-50 Carbons: mineral oils) which are blended with long
chain of polymers so that viscosity of oil is maintained in all seasons of the
year.
Fluid Film/ Hydrodynamic lubrication contd.
 Boundary Lubrication
Load is high, speed is low continuous film cannot be
maintained.
Conditions for boundary lubrication:
(a) Shaft comes into motion from rest. (b) viscosity of oil is
low . (c) Load is high speed is low.
Film less than 1000 Å.
Lubricant is physically or chemically adsorbed on the
metal surface.
Lubricant is a thin film of metallic soap: Boundary film.
Coefficient of friction is 0.05-0.15.
 Boundary Lubrication
• Effectiveness of lubrication depends upon
oiliness.
• Oiliness is the ability of the lubricant to stick
on the metal surface.
Vegetable oils contain more oiliness.
Oleic acid (C17H33COOH) & Stearic acid (C17H35
COOH).
Mineral oils do not have good oiliness.
 Boundary Lubrication contd..
However, Vegetable oils decompose at high temp.

Minerals oil are also used but in order to improve their oiliness
vegetable oils are added to it.
 Extreme Pressure
High load (high pressure)and high speed (high temp or
more heat) liquid lubricants fail (decompose or evaporate)
Special additives are added to mineral oils-extreme
pressure additives
Organic compounds which contain active group like
chlorine, sulphur or phosphorus.
Groups react with metal surface to form chloride,
sulphides, & phosphides.
Have high mp, e.g., Iron sulphide melts at 1100°C.
LUBRICANTS
LECTURE 2
10/10/2014
 Ques. From last lecture on Boundary Lubricants
Boundary lubricants generally have long, straight, polar molecules,
which will readily attach themselves to the metal surfaces. The
lubricant molecules will form a thick protective layer shown below:
 Classification of Lubricant
1. Liquid Lubricant
a. Vegetable Oil-Castor Oil
b. Animal Oil-Whale Oil
c. Mineral Oil- Petroleum fraction
d. Synthetic lubricants-Silicones
e. Blended –Mineral oil with additives
2. Semi solid
Greases
3. Solid
Graphite, Molybdenum disulphide
 Liquid lubricants
a & b. Vegetable & Animal Oils
Glycerides= Esters from glycerol & higher fatty
acids.
Undergo oxidation at high temp-Gummy
products.
Get hydrolyzed in water to give glycerol & acids.
Used as blending agents with mineral oils
c. Mineral Oils or petroleum oils (Carbon 12 to 50)
Cheap, stable, oiliness improved by adding veg oils.
But mineral oil contains waxes, asphalt and other
oxidisable impurities which have to be removed.
Removal of impurities involves dewaxing, acid
refining and solvent refining.
(ref: Pg 431, 16th ed. Jain & Jain)
d. Synthetic Lubricants
-50 to 250°C (Example in aircraft engines)
Lubricants should have low freezing pt, high viscosity
index, high stability and non inflammable
Petroleum oils are oxidized and waxes separate out at low
temp.
Example of Synthetic lubricants are Silicones and
polyglycols
e. Blended or compounded lubricants
Lubricating oils with additives-blended oils
 Liquid Lubricants contd..
Additives used in blended oils
1. Oiliness Carriers
Stearic acid & Palmatic acids- Increasing oiliness or adhering properties.
2. Extreme Pressure
Organic compounds of Cl, S, P- Metal surface forming a film of low
shear strength and high mp.
3. Pour point depressants
Phenols- Prevention of waxesu
4. Viscosity index improvers
n-Hexanol, Polyisobutylene-Prevent thinning of lubricants at high temp
& thickening at low temp.
5. Thickeners
Polyesters, polystyrenes-Increase viscosity
6. Antioxidants
Phenolic & aromatic amino compounds -Prevent oxidation &
formation of gums
7. Corrosion inhibitors
Antimony or phosphorus –adsorbed on metallic surfaces and
protect from moisture.
8. Deposit inhibitors- Detergents
Salts of phenols and carboxylic acids-Prevents Carbon deposits
 Semi Solid Lubricants (Grease)
Lubricating Oil(veg. oil) + Metallic Soap  Thickened to give Lubricating
Greases
Step I: (Saponification)
CH2 –OCOR CH2OH
I I
CH-OCOR + 3 MOH  CHOH + 3 RCOOM
I I Metallic soap
CH2-OCOR CH2OH (Thickener)
(M=Na, Li)
Step II For example
Preparation of Lithium Grease:
Veg Oil + LiOH Lithium Soap + Hot Lubricating Oil Grease
Type of Greases are dependent on nature of the
soap.
Imp. Factors are:
1. Temperature of usage of Grease
2. Property as a thickener
3. Water & oxidation resistance
4. Sticks to the metal surface firmly.
 Important Grease Classification
Type of Grease Properties Uses
1. Sodium Soap Slightly soluble in water. Used as ball & roller
Grease Used upto 175°C. bearing grease.
2. Calcium Soap Known as cup greases. Used in water pumps,
Grease Water resistant but good tractors, etc.
only upto 80°C as above
that oil and soap
separate.
3. Barium Soap Grease Water resistant and good Used for lubricating
adhesiveness. automobiles.
4. Lithium Soap Water resistant & heat Used in engines.
Grease resistant.
5. Axle Grease Cheap & water resistant. Used in less delicate
Resin Grease instruments in low and
high speed e.g.,
Railway carriage axle
grease.
 Why Greases are used?
1. Where oil is squeezed out due to high load, low speed,
intermittent operation, sudden jerks, etc. eg., rail axle
boxes
2. In bearings and gears operating at high temp.
3. Bearings need to be sealed against entry of dirt, dust, etc.
4. Frequent application of lubricant, in automobile wheel
bearings, etc..
5. In situations where dripping and spurting of oil is
undesirable. Machines in preparing paper, textiles, edible
articles, etc.
Lecture 3
Lubricants
 Solid Lubricants
1. Operating temperature and load is too high.
2. Contamination of lube oils or greases by dirt
and dust etc should be avoided.
3. Combustible lubricants must be avoided.

Graphite and Molybdenum Sulphide.

Graphite

Stable upto 375°C.

Used as Solid or colloidal dispersion
Aqua dag : Graphite in water. Used in air
compressors, machinery in foodstuff industry.
Oil dag: Graphite in oil. Used in internal
combustion engines.
MoS2
Sandwich strure.
Layers slide over one another.
MoS2 has low coefficient of
friction.
Can be used as powder or in
colloidal form.
Is oxidised > 800°C.
Uses in space, vaccum, heavy
machinery at high temp.
Mica & Talc are also examples
of solid lubricants.
 PROPERITES OF LUBRICANTS
1. VISCOSITY
Internal resistance to flow
F=η V/d where F=force per unit area; η= Coefficient
of viscosity; V= velocity difference between two layers
d=distance between layers.
UNITS CENTIPOISE=1/100 POISE
time is in seconds Redwood viscometer Saybolt viscometer
Vol: 50 ml 60 ml
Viscosity: Redwood seconds Saybolt universal seconds
Good lubricant: Moderate viscosity
Too High: Excessive friction therefore increase machine hindrance.
Too low: Lubricant film cannot be maintained between the moving
surfaces.
 Contd..
2. Viscosity Index (V.I.)
Viscosity decreases with increase in temp.
The average decrease in viscosity of an oil per degree rise in temperature between
100°F and 210°F.
The rate at which viscosity of an oil changes with the temperature is measured on a
scale called Viscosity Index (V.I.).
Rapid decrease in viscosity with temperature rise then V.I. is low.

Gulf Oil (naphthenic base- cycloparaffins) is assigned V.I.=0; ‘L’ oil

If viscosity not affected by temperature then V.I. is high.
Pennsylvanian oil (paraffinic base-alkanes) V.I.=100; ‘H’ oil

Molecules of linear structure, possessing flexibility, through free rotation about the
chemical bonds, exhibit high V.I.

Good Lubricant minimum change in viscosity with rise in temp- high V.I.
V.I. is increased by adding polymers like polyisobutylene, n-hexanol
Viscosity Index Determination
V.I. of a test oil is determined by comparing its V.I.
with that of two standard oils
At 100° F with zero V.I. oil (Gulf Oil) ‘L’ & with 100 V.I.
oil (Pennsylvanian) ‘H’
V.I. = (L-U)/(L-H) x 100
U= Viscosity of test oil at 100° F
L=Viscosity of low VI oil at 100° F
H= Viscosity of high VI oil at 100° F
 Contd..
3. Flash Point & Fire Point
Flash Point: lowest temp of hot oil with enough vapors to ignite for a moment
with a small flame.
Fire point : lowest temp of oil vapor to burn continuously for 5 seconds with a
small flame.
Fire point > Flash point by 5-40 °C.
A good lubricant should have flash & fire point above its operating temperature.
Useful in storage & transport. Determined by Cleveland's apparatus (open cup)
or Pensky- Martin’s apparatus(closed cup).

Pensky-Martin
Apparatus
4. Cloud Point & Pour Point
Cloud point:
Oil cooled-cloudy (impurities start solidifying)
Pour Point: oil ceases to flow
Significance of cloud & pour point:
Indicates suitability of oil under cold conditions.
Good lubricant should have low cloud and pour point. Waxes
raise the pour point of oil.
For low cloud & low pour point
(i) Dewaxing (ii) adding pour point depressants (Polyakylbenzene)
5. Oiliness
Capacity of lubricant to stick on to the surface under
heavy load or pressure

Poor oiliness: Lubricant Squeezed out

High oiliness: Vegetable oil
Adding vegetable oils (Oleic & Stearic acids) to
mineral oils improves their oiliness.
Good lubricant-Good oiliness
 Selection of Lubricants
# Type of Job Properties of lubricants Remarks
needed
1. Lubricants for Cutting tools. a. To cool the tool & the work piece Cutting oils
(Heat is generated) b. To reduce power consumption. Mineral oils with
i. Heavy Cutting c. To improve surface finish. additives like fatty oils,
sulphurized oils etc.
ii. Light cutting Oil emulsions
2. Lubricants for IC engines Should withstand high temperature, Petroleum oil with
High V.I. ,oxidation resistance additives
3. Lubricants for Gears High Pressure Mineral oils with
Possess Oiliness additives (metallic
Shouldn’t be removed by centrifugal soaps, Cl, S, P)
force
Possess high resistance to oxidation
High load carrying capacity.
4. Lubricants for Delicate Instruments Not exposed to heat & water Thin vegetable &
(watches, clocks, sewing machines, animal oil (Palm Oil)
etc)
5. High pressure and low speeds Use in Railway track joints, lathes Solid Lubricants
 Selection of Lubricants contd..
# Type of Job Properties of lubricants needed Remarks
6. High Pressure Use in Railway axle boxes, wire Greases & blended
Low & high speed ropes, tractor rollers thick oils
7. For transformers Good dielectric properties. Highly refined
Efficient Heat Transfer mineral oils with
Oxidation resistance & chemical additives
Stability
8. Lubricants for Should have oxidation and rust Thin oils
spindles in high inhibitors
speed in textile
industry
9. Lubricants for Low cloud & pour points Naphthenic (CnH2n)
refrigeration Low viscosity based oils
system
 Unit 3 (b): Plastics
• The word plastics is from the Greek word
Plastikos, meaning “able to be shaped and
molded”
Why design with plastics?
• Light weight, high weight to strength ratio,
particularly when reinforced
• Relatively low cost compared to metals and
composites
 Why Plastics?
• Corrosion resistance
• Low electrical and thermal conductivity,
insulator
• Easily formed into complex shapes, can be
formed, casted and joined.
• Wide choice of appearance, colors and
transparencies
 Disadvantages of plastics
• Low strength
• Low useful temperature range (up to 600 oF)
• Less dimensional stability over period of time
(creep effect)
• Aging effect, hardens and become brittle over
time
• Sensitive to environment, moisture and chemicals
• Poor machinability
 Polymers
• The earliest synthetic polymer was developed in 1906, called Bakelite.

• The development of modern plastics started in 1920s using raw

material extracted from coal and petroleum products (Ethylene).
Ethylene is called a building block.

• Polymers are long-chain molecules and are formed by polymerization

process, linking and cross linking a particular building block (monomer, a
unit cell).

• The term polymer means many units repeated many times in a

chainlike structure.

• Most monomers are organic materials, atoms are joined in covalent bonds
(electron-sharing) with other atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,
sulfur, chlorine,….

39
 Polymer’s Structures
Bonding – monomers are linked together by covalent bonds, forming a
polymer chain (primary bonds). The polymer chains are held together by
secondary bonds. The strength of polymers comes in part from the length of
polymer chains. The longer the chain, the stronger the polymer. More energy is
needed to overcome the secondary bonds.

Linear polymers Branched polymers

A sequential structure resulting in
thermoplastics like nylon, acrylic,
polyethylene. A linear polymer may
contain some branched and cross-
linked chains resulting in change in
properties.
Side branch chains are attached to the main
chain which interferes with the relative
movement of the molecular chains. This
results in an increase in strength, deformation
resistance and stress cracking resistance.
Lower density than linear chain polymers.
41
 Polymer’s Structures
Cross-linked polymers
Three dimensional structure, adjacent chains are linked by
covalent bonds. Polymers with cross-linked chains are called
thermosetting plastics (thermosets), epoxy and Silicones.

Cross-linking is responsible for providing hardness, strength,

brittleness and better dimensional stability.

Network polymers
A three dimensional network of three or more
covalent bonds. Thermoplastic polymers that have
been already formed could be cross-linked to obtain
higher strength. Polymers are exposed to high-energy
radiation.

42
 Classification of polymers
There are two major classifications of polymers

Thermoplastics

As the temperature is raised above the melting point, the secondary bonds weaken,
making it easier to form the plastic into any desired shape. When polymer is cooled, it
returns to its original strength and hardness. The process is reversible. Polymers that
show this behavior are known as thermoplastics.

Thermosetting Plastics (thermosets)

Thermosetting plastics are cured into permanent shape. Cannot be re-melted to the
flowable state that existed before curing, continued heating for a long time leads to
degradation or decomposition. This curing (cross-linked) reaction is irreversible.
Thermosets generally have better mechanical, thermal and chemical properties. They
also have better electrical resistance and dimensional stability than do thermoplastics.

43
 Th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n Th e rm o p la s tic s a n d Th e rm o s e ttin g p la s tic s ? :

Ther difference between these two types of plastics is that Thermoplastics can be
heated and shaped over and over again - Thermosetting plastics can only be heated
and shaped once.

Thermoplastic = ....
heated & re-
shaped -
Thermosetting =
no re-shaping.
Thermoplastics
Thermosetting