Networking Basics: Lokesh Kumar N

NETWORKING
BASICS
LOKESH KUMAR N
1
UNICAST
 Unicast is One to One communication
2
MULTICAST
 Multicast is One to Group Communication
3
BROADCAST
 Broadcast is One to All Communication
4
TOPOLOGY
 A topology is a description of any kind of
locality in terms of its layout. In
communication networks, a topology is a
usually schematic description of the
arrangement of a network, including its nodes
and connecting lines
 The physical topology of a network describes
the layout of the cables and workstations and
the location of all network components
 Common Topology:
Bus, Ring, Star and Mesh
5
BUS TOPOLOGY
 In a bus topology, all computers are attached
to a single continuous cable that is
terminated at both ends, which is the
simplest way to create a physical network
Terminator
6
STAR TOPOLOGY
 Unlike those in a bus topology,
each computer in a star topology is
connected to a central point by a
separate cable. The central point is
a device known as a hub
 Although this setup uses more

cable than a bus, a star topology is
much more fault tolerant than a
bus topology. This means that if a
failure occurs along one of the
cables connecting to the hub, only
that portion of the network is
affected, not the entire network. It
also means that you can add new
stations just by running a single
new cable
7
RING TOPOLOGY
 In the ring topology, each
computer is connected directly to
two other computers in the
network. Data moves down a
one-way path from one computer
to another i.e. clock wise
 Laying out cable in a ring is that

the cable design is simple. The
bad news is that, as with bus
topology, any break, such as
adding or removing a computer,
disrupts the entire network. Also,
because you have to “break” the
ring in order to add another
station, it is very difficult to
reconfigure without bringing
down the whole network
8
RING TOPOLOGY
B Note: Even though all

computers are connected
through a single cable, if
there is a break all the
computer connected to the
C ring topology will not work
A
Example: If Machine A
Wants to talk to Machine D
The data can travel only
Clock Wise If there is a
D break in the loop the data
cannot be transferred
9
MESH TOPOLOGY
 In a mesh topology, a path exists
from each station to every other
station in the network. While not
usually seen in LANs, a variation
on this type of topology—the
hybrid mesh—is used on the
Internet and other WANs in a
limited fashion.
 Hybrid mesh topology networks

can have multiple connections
between some locations, but this
is done only for redundancy.
 Also, it is not a true mesh because

there is not a connection between
each and every node, just a few
for backup purposes
10
COAXIAL CABLE
 Coaxial cable consists

of a central copper
core surrounded by an
insulator, a braided
metal shielding, called
braiding, and an outer
cover, called the
sheath or jacket
EG : Cable TV network
and Cable Modem use
the coaxial cable 11
COAXIAL CABLE CONNECTOR
12
THICKNET (10BASE5)
 Thicknet cabling, also called thick wire Ethernet, is a
rigid coaxial cable approximately 1-cm thick used for
the original Ethernet networks.Thicknet is also called
“yellow Ethernet” or “yellow garden hose.”
 IEEE designates Thicknet as 10Base5 Ethernet.The “10”

represents its throughput of 10 Mbps, the “Base” stands
for baseband transmission, and the “5” represents the
maximum segment length of a Thicknet cable, which is
500 m. You may find this on older networks.
13
THINNET (10BASE2)

Thinnet, also known as thin Ethernet, was the most
popular medium for Ethernet LANs in the 1980s. Thinnet
is rarely used on modern networks, although you may
encounter it on networks installed in the 1980s or on
newer small office or home office LANs
 IEEE has designated Thinnet as 10Base2 Ethernet, with
the “10” representing its data transmission rate of 10
Mbps, the “Base” representing the fact that it uses
baseband transmission, and the “2” representing its
maximum segment length of 185 (or roughly 200) m.
14
TWISTED PAIR (TP)
 Twisted-pair (TP) cable is
similar to telephone wiring
and consists of color-
coded pairs of insulated
copper wires. The more
twists per inch in a pair of
wires, the more resistant
the pair will be to all forms
of noise.
 Higher-quality, more
expensive twisted-pair
cable contains more twists
per foot. The number of
twists per meter or foot is
known as the twist ratio.
15
TWISTED PAIR (TP)
 Twisted-pair cable is the most
common form of cabling found on
LANs today. It’s inexpensive, flexible,
and easy to install, and it can span a
significant distance before requiring
a repeater (though not as far as
coax). Twisted-pair cable easily
accommodates several different
topologies, although it is most often
implemented in star or star-hybrid
topologies
 One drawback to twisted-pair is that,

because of its flexibility, it is more
prone to physical damage than
coaxial cable. All twisted-pair cable
falls into one of two categories:
shielded twisted-pair (STP) or
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
16
SHIELDED TWISTED-PAIR (STP)
 As the name implies, shielded twisted-pair (STP)
cable consists of twisted wire pairs that are not only
individually insulated, but also surrounded by a
shielding made of a metallic substance such as foil.
Some STP use a braided metal shielding. The
shielding acts as a barrier to external
electromagnetic forces, thus preventing them from
affecting the signals traveling over the wire inside
the shielding. The shielding may be grounded to
enhance its protective effect.
17
UNSHIELDED TWISTED-PAIR
(UTP)
 Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling consists

of one or more insulated wire pairs encased in a
plastic sheath. As its name implies, UTP does
not contain additional shielding for the twisted
pairs. As a result, UTP is both less expensive
and less resistant to noise than STP
18
UTP TYPES
UTP CAT 1/2/3/4/5/6

Cat 1 Data Rate upto 1 Mbps – Telephone Line
Cat 2 Date Rage upto 4 Mbps – Token Ring
Cat 3 Data Rate upto 10 Mbps – Token Ring & 10 Base – T
Cat 4 Data Rate upto 16 Mbps – Token Ring
Cat 5 Date Rate up to 100 Mbps Ethernet – 16 for Token Ring
Cat 5e Data Rage upto 1000 Mbps Ethernet
Cat 6 Data Rate upto 1000 Mbps Ethernet
19
FIBER OPTIC
 A fiber-optic system is
similar to the copper
wire system that fiber-
optics is replacing.
The difference is that
fiber-optics use light
pulses to transmit
information down fiber
lines instead of using
electronic pulses to
transmit information
down copper lines.
20
FIBER OPTIC
 Bandwidth Up to 100s
of Gbps
 Distance (100 +KM)
 Three Types
 Single Mode
 Multi Mode
 Plastic Optical
Fiber Mode
21
STRAIGHT THROUGH CABLE
Pin Number Wire color Wire Becomes Pin number Wire color
Pin 1 Orange / White Pin 1 Orange / White
Pin 2 Orange 1 1 Pin 2 Orange
Pin 3 Green / White Pin 3 Green / White
Pin 4 Blue
22 Blue/White
2 2 Pin 4 Blue
Pin 5 Pin 5 Blue/White
Pin 6
Pin 7
Green
Brown/White
3 3 Pin 6
Pin 7
Green
Brown/White
Pin 8 Brown
6 6 Pin 8 Brown
STRAIGHT THROUGH CABLE
 In a UTP implementation of a straight-
through cable, the wires on both cable ends
are in the same order
 You can determine that the wiring is a

straight-through cable by holding both ends
of the UTP cable side by side and seeing
that the order of the wires on both ends is
identical
 You can use a straight-through cable for dissimilar devices
Connecting a router to a hub or switch

Connecting a server to a hub or switch
Connecting workstations to a hub or switch
23
CROSS OVER CABLE
Pin Number Wire color Wire Becomes Pin number Wire color
Pin 1 Orange/White Pin 1 Green/White
Pin 2 Orange 1 3 Pin 2 Green
Pin 3 Green / White Pin 3 Orange/White
Pin 4 Blue 2 6 Pin 4 Blue
Pin 5 Blue/White Pin 5 Blue/White
Pin 6
Pin 7
Green
Brown/White
3 1 Pin 6
Pin 7
Orange
Brown/White
Pin 8 Brown
6 2 Pin 8 Brown
24
STRAIGHT THROUGH / X- OVER CABLE
The Transmit and Receive pins are shown above
25
CROSS OVER CABLE
 In the implementation of a crossover,
the wires on each end of the cable are
crossed
 Transmit to Receive and Receive to

Transmit on each side, for both tip and
ring

Notice that pin 1 on one side connects to
pin 3 on the other side, and pin 2
connects to pin 6 on the opposite end
You can use a crossover cable for similar
devices
26
Connecting uplinks between switches

Connecting hubs to switches
Connecting a hub to another hub.
WHERE TO USE STRAIGHT THROUGH AND
CROSS OVER CABLE
Dissimilar Devices
Straight through Cable PC

Hub / Switch
Similar Devices
Cross Over Cable

PC PC
27
REGISTERED JACK (RJ)
RJ 11 RJ 45
 RJ-11 – Defined for

telephone
connectors
 RJ-45 – Defined for

UTP connectors
28
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
 A computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most
LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings
29
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
 A computer network that spans a relatively large geographical
area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-area
networks (LANs)
30
INTRANET
31
INTERNET
32
OPEN SYSTEM INTERNETCONNECT (OSI)
 The OSI model was designed to promote
interoperability by creating a guideline for
network data transmission between
computers that have different hardware
vendors, software, operating systems,
and protocols
33
OSI
 The OSI reference model illustrates the
networking process as being divided into seven
layers. This theoretical construct makes it easier
to learn and understand the concepts involved.
At the top of the model is the application that
requires access to a resource on the network,
and at the bottom is the network medium itself
 As data moves down through the layers of the

model, the various protocols operating there
prepare and package it for transmission over the
network. Once the data arrives at its destination,
it moves up through the layers on the receiving
system, where the same protocols perform the 34
same process in reverse
OSI
 OSI developed by
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1974
 It consists of Seven Layers

 Each layer has specific
processing function
35
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECT
36
DATA COMMUNICATION WITH
OSI
How data travels through the layers of the OSI
model
Peer
Communication
Information flow
Network Medium
37
OSI
In Physical Layer data will be converted into

Binary (0’s & 1’&)
 It transmits raw bit stream over physical cable
The Physical layer defines all the electrical and

physical specifications for devices
 Physical Layer defines techniques to transfer bit

stream to cable
38
Hub and Repeater works in Physical
Layer
OSI
Data Link Layer handles data frames between the
Network and Physical layers
 It Receives end packages raw data from the Physical
layer into data frames for delivery to the Network
layer as packets
 Error detection is happening in this layer

 Data link Layer is divided in to two layers:
LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC ( Media Access
Control)
Switch,39
Bridge and Network Interface card works in
Data Link Layer
OSI
Network Layer is responsible for providing

best path for data to reach the destination
 Logical addressing is happening in this layer
 Network Layer translates logical network

address and names to their physical address
(e.g. computer name = MAC address)
40
Router works in Network Layer
OSI
Transport Layer is responsible for reliable delivery of
data. It is also known as the heart of OSI layers
Provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data
delivery, with on losses or duplications
 Provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions;
requests retransmission if some packets don’t arrive
error-free
The major function of the Transport Layer is Error
Correction
 Identifying Service, Multiplexing & De-multiplexing and

Segmentation are happening in this layer
Brouter
41 and Gateway works in Transport Layer
BREAKING DATA IN TO
SEGMENTS
Data
42
OSI
Session Layer is responsible for establishing,
maintaining and terminating session
 Responsible for name recognition

(identification) so only the designated parties can
participate in the session
 Manages who can transmit data at a certain
time and for how long
Provides synchronization services by planning
check points in the data stream if session fails,
only data after the most recent checkpoint need
be transmitted
43
Gateway works in Session Layer

OSI
 Presentation layer is responsible for presenting
the data in a standard format and data translation
(formatting)
 The Presentation layer relieves the Application

layer of concern regarding syntactical differences in
a message's data representation within the end-
user systems
Following tasks are performed in Presentation
Layer:
Encoding – Decoding
Encryption – Decryption
Compression – Decompression
44
Gateway Works in Presentation Layer

OSI
Application Layer provides the operating system
with direct access to network services
Application layer provides an interface so that
processes such as Excel or Word that are running
on the local machine can get access to network
services (E.G., retrieving a file from a network
server)
 Handles network access, flow control and error
recovery
 It serves as the interface between the user and
the network
 It’s a user specific layer
45
Gateway works in Application layer
OSI
Gateway
Router
Switch
HUB
46
OSI
47
OSI
48
IP ADDRESSING
 Internet Protocol Address is given to the computer
as an identifier to a computer in a TCP/IP Network
 IP Address is also known as Logical Address
 IP Address works in Layer 3 (Network)
 Two versions of IP Addressing
 IP Version 4 - 32 bit address (Currently we are using)
 IP Version 6 - 128 bit address

49
IP ADDRESSING
 IP Address is divided in to Network Portion and Host
Portion
 Class A is written as N.H.H.H
 Class B is written as N.N.H.H
 Class C is written as N.N.N.H
50
IP ADDRESSING
51
IP ADDRESS
 Class A 1 - 126
 Class B 128 - 191 Widely Used
 Class C 192 - 223
 Class D 224 - 239 Multicast
 Class E 240 - 254 Research & Development

52
IP ADDRESSING
Class First Bits First Byte Network ID Bits Host ID Bits Number of Number of
Values Networks Hosts
A 0 1 - 126 8 24 126 16,77,214
B 10 128 -191 16 16 16,384 65,534
C 110 192 - 223 24 8 2,097,152 254
Private IP Address Range

Class Network Address
A 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255
B 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255
C 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255
53
IP ADDRESSING
 Loop Back Address:
The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as the

loop back address. This means that it is used by the host
computer to send a message back to itself. It is
commonly used for troubleshooting and network testing
54
IP ADDRESSING
 Loop Back address is also known as semi broad cast address
 Range of Loop back address : 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.254
 Any IP address starts with 127 is known as loop back address
Click Start Run  Type cmd  Ping 127.56.26.36
55
SUBNET MASK
 Subnet Mask is to differentiate the Network ID and Host ID
 Two numbers reserved for Subnet Mask i.e. 0 & 255
 0 Denotes Host and 255 Denotes Network
Class Default Subnet Mask
Class A is written as 255.0.0.0

N.H.H.H
Class B is written as 255.255.0.0

N.N.H.H
56
Class C is written as 255.255.255.0
N.N.N.H
SUBNET MASK
 IP Address : 10.20.50.26 Subnet Mask : 255.0.0.0
For this IP Address :
Network ID is : 10.0.0.0
First Valid IP Address : 10.0.0.1
Last Valid IP Address : 10.255.255.254
Broad Cast Address : 10.255.255.255
Number of hosts = (256x256x256) -2

57
SUBNET MASK
Number of hosts = (256x256) – 2

58
SUBNET MASK
Number of hosts = (256) – 2 59

SUBNET MASK
 IP Address 172.26.28.36 Subnet Mask : 255.0.0.0
For this IP Address:
60
SUBNET MASK
 IP Address 172.26.28.36 Subnet Mask :
255.255.0.0

61
SUBNET MASK
 IP Address 172.26.28.36 Subnet Mask
255.255.255.0
Number of hosts = (256) – 2

62
SUBNET MASK
 IP Address 192.168.0.152 Subnet Mask 255.0.0.0
63
SUBNET MASK
255.255.0.0

64
SUBNET MASK
255.255.255.0
Number of hosts = (256) – 2

65
BROADCAST ADDRESS
 Messages that are intended for all computers on a

network are sent as broadcasts
 These messages always use the IP address

255.255.255.255
 Any IP Address with last Octet as 255 is known as

broadcast address for that particular network E.g.:
10.255.255.255
 The IP address of 0.0.0.0 is used for the default

network
66
HOW TO ASSIGN STATIC IP ADDRESS AND
SUBNET MASK
 High light Local Area  Select Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Connection  Right and select “Properties”
Click  Select Properties
67
HOW TO ASSIGN STATIC IP ADDRESS AND
SUBNET MASK
 When ever you assign a Static
IP Address it’s Mandatory to
assign static DNS
 For Windows 2000 and above

Subnet Mask will be
automatically assigned by the
computer with the help of
Network ID
68
MAC ADDRESS
 The Media Access Control address (MAC) can
be equated to the serial number of the NIC.
Every IP packet is sent out of your NIC wrapped
inside an Ethernet frame which uses MAC
addresses to direct traffic on your locally
attached network
 MAC addresses therefore only have

significance on the locally attached network. As
the packet hops across the Internet, its
source/destination IP address stays the same,
but the MAC addresses are reassigned by each
router on the way using a process called ARP
69
MAC ADDRESS
 MAC addresses are usually written in one of
the following two formats:
00:13:21:0F:83:DF 00-13-21-0F-83-DF
 Mac address is a 48 bit address
 Mac address are 12 digit Hexadecimal {0-9}

{A- F} Address
70
MAC ADDRESS
 The First Octet of the MAC Address is known as

Group Unique 00 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF
 The Second and Third Octet of the MAC Address is

known as Organization Unique Identifier (OUI) 00 :
13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF
71
MAC ADDRESS
 Any Mac address starts with 00 is known

as Unicast address 00 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 :
DF
 Any Mac address starts with 01 is known

as Multicast 01 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF
 Any Mac address starts with FF is known

as Broadcast FF : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF
72
MAC ADDRESS
73
REQUEST TIMED OUT
 The ping command timed out because there was no
reply from the host. The source and the destination
computer are in the same network
 When Ping command is initiated from one system to

the other in a network if the firewall is enabled on the
Destination System Request Timed Out error will Pop up
74
DESTINATION HOST
UNREACHABLE
 The host that you are trying to ping is
in a different network. Destination and
the source belong to the different
network
75
Difference between Request timed out and
Destination Host Unreachable
Hub/Switch
IP : 192.168.0.8 IP : 192.168.1.53
Mask : 255.255.255.0 Mask : 255.255.255.0
D.G : 192.168.0.1 D.G : 192.168.1.1
Hub/Switch
76
IP : 192.168.2.56 IP : 192.168.1.36
Mask : 255.255.255.0 Mask : 255.255.255.0
UNREACHABLE AND DESTINATION HOST NET
UNREACHABLE
Hub/Switch
IP : 192.168.2.168 IP : 192.168.1.192
Mask : 255.255.255.0 Mask : 255.255.255.0
Internet
WAN Side
N Side
Router
77
Note: Since the Router is not able to pass the WAN
Cable/DSL Modem
interface it is giving the reply from LAN interface
DESTINATION NET
UNREACHABLE
 Destination Net Unreachable message is one which a
user would usually get from the Default Gateway when it
doesn't know how to get to a particular net work
78
UNKNOWN HOST
 If the DNS resolution is not happening the computer will display as
“Unknown host”
 Global DNS has to be assigned to fix this issue
79
COMMAND PROMPT ERROR
 If the static IP Address is assigned to the computer and if we
tried to renew the IP Address it will display as “Operation failed
as no adapter is in the state permissible for this operation
80
ERROR CODE 28 (COMMAND PROMPT
 Direct Firewall or PIX or Norton Internet
Security Installed (NIS)
81
PROMPT
 Anti Spy Ware or Zone Alarm in the

Computer
82
SOCKET ERROR
83
DIGITAL SIGNATURE
 Digital signatures are especially important for electronic commerce
and are a key component of most authentication schemes. To be
effective, digital signatures must be unforgeable
84
DIGITAL SIGNATURE
 A digital certificate contains the digital signature
of the certificate-issuing authority so that
anyone can verify that the certificate is real
85
NIC CARD INSTALLATION
 Physically install
the network
adapter, and then
restart the PC.
86
If the Operating System is Windows 2000
and above the screen will display as New
Hardware Found and select “Next”
 Select the “Hardware Type”
87
 Select the “Manufacturer”

 Select “Display a List”
and Click “Have Disk”
SMC 1211 TX
88
 Select “Browse”  Select the Location as CD-Rom
89
 Select the “Drivers” Select the “File” and Click “OK”
90
 Click “OK”
91
 Click “Yes” to restart the computer
 Check the Device Manager for Device Status
92

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NETWORKING

 Unicast is One to One communication

 Multicast is One to Group Communication

 Broadcast is One to All Communication

 Although this setup uses more

 Laying out cable in a ring is that

B Note: Even though all

 Hybrid mesh topology networks

 Also, it is not a true mesh because

 Coaxial cable consists

 IEEE designates Thicknet as 10Base5 Ethernet.The “10”

 One drawback to twisted-pair is that,

 Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling consists

UTP CAT 1/2/3/4/5/6

 Distance (100 +KM)

 You can determine that the wiring is a

 You can use a straight-through cable for dissimilar devices

Connecting a router to a hub or switch

The Transmit and Receive pins are shown above

 Transmit to Receive and Receive to

Connecting uplinks between switches

Straight through Cable PC

Cross Over Cable

 RJ-11 – Defined for

 RJ-45 – Defined for

 As data moves down through the layers of the

 It consists of Seven Layers

In Physical Layer data will be converted into

 It transmits raw bit stream over physical cable

The Physical layer defines all the electrical and

 Physical Layer defines techniques to transfer bit

 Error detection is happening in this layer

Network Layer is responsible for providing

 Logical addressing is happening in this layer

 Network Layer translates logical network

 Identifying Service, Multiplexing & De-multiplexing and

 Responsible for name recognition

Gateway works in Session Layer

 The Presentation layer relieves the Application

Gateway Works in Presentation Layer

 IP Address is also known as Logical Address

 IP Address works in Layer 3 (Network)

 Two versions of IP Addressing

 IP Version 4 - 32 bit address (Currently we are using)

 IP Version 6 - 128 bit address

 Class A is written as N.H.H.H

 Class B is written as N.N.H.H

 Class C is written as N.N.N.H

 Class B 128 - 191 Widely Used

 Class C 192 - 223

 Class D 224 - 239 Multicast

 Class E 240 - 254 Research & Development

A 0 1 - 126 8 24 126 16,77,214

B 10 128 -191 16 16 16,384 65,534

C 110 192 - 223 24 8 2,097,152 254

Private IP Address Range

The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as the

Click Start Run  Type cmd  Ping 127.56.26.36

Class Default Subnet Mask

Class A is written as 255.0.0.0

Class B is written as 255.255.0.0

For this IP Address :

First Valid IP Address : 10.0.0.1