1

CHAPTER:-1

AN INTODUCTION
TO
PSYCHOLOGY
By: TRIBHUWAN OJHA
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CONTAINS
 INTRODUCTION
 GOAL OF PSYCHOLOG
 MAJOUR PERSPECTIVE IN PSYCHOLOGY
 PSYCHOLOGICAL TRENDS FOR NEW
MILLENIUM
 APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY IN
EVERY DAY LIFE
 RESEARCH METHOD IN PSYCHOLOGY
CLASSIFICATION 3
DAY:1 DAY:2

INTRODUCTION RESEARCH METHOD IN

PSYCHOLOGY

GOAL OF PSYCHOLOG APPLICATION OF PSYCHOLOGY

IN EVERY DAY LIFE

MAJOUR PERSPECTIVE IN  YOUR QUESTION OUR

PSYCHOLOGY ANSWER

PSYCHOLOGICAL
TRENDS FOR NEW
MILLENIUM
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INTODUCTION
 Psychology
was derived from Greek
word “PSYCHE” & “LOGAS”.
 “PSYCHE” mean: Breath, Sprit, or
Soul.
 “LOGAS” mean: Study
 Literally
psychology is the “STUDY OF
SOUL", But now it is study of mind.
 Simply,"
It is the SCIENTIFIC STUDY of
human MENTAL PROCESS &
BEHAVIOUR.
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BEHAVIOUR??
 Simply, behavior refers to anything we
DO, THINK & FEEL.
 It is classified into two category: ‘OVERT’
& ‘COVERT’.
 OVERT(observable):Behavior which are
observed by other.eg: playing, singing
etc..
 COVERT(covered):behavior which is
known only to the person who is
experiencing it.eg: thinking, dreaming
etc..
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GOALS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
To describe
To explain
To predict
To change
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TO DESCRIBE:
 One of the first goals of psychology is
simply to describe behavior.
 Through describing the behavior of
humans and other animals, we are
better able to understand it and gain a
better perspective on what is
considered normal and abnormal.
 Many research method are used
including naturalistic observation, case
studies, correlational studies and
surveys.
TO EXPLAIN: 8

 psychologists are also interested in

explaining behavior in addition to
describing it.
 Why do people do the things they do?
What factors contribute to development,
personality, social behavior, and mental
health problems?
 Throughout psychology's history, many
different theories have emerged to help
explain various aspects of human
behavior.
 Theory involved in this process are
classical conditioning and operant
TO PREDICT: 9

 Once we understand more about

what happens and why it happens,

 we can use that information to

make predictions,

 And its about when, why, and how it

might happen again in the future.
TO CHANGE: 1
0

 Finally, and perhaps most

importantly,

 psychology strives to
change, influence, or control
behavior in order to make
positive and lasting changes
in people's lives.
MAJOUR 1
1
PERSPECTIVE IN
PSYCHOLOGY:
 Behavioral,
 Cognitive,
 Biological,
 Evolutionary,
 Psychodynamics,
 Social and Cultural
 Humanistic Perspective,
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BEHAVIORAL 2
PERSPECTIVE:
 In 1950s John B Wanton advocated this
approach for the first time.
Cont. 1
3

 According to him it is possible to draw

any behavior by controlling the
behavior.
 It is a perspective that focuses on
learned behaviors.
 It generally, applied in mental health
settings, where therapists use these
techniques to explain and treat a
variety of illnesses.
 This perspective has also made
contribution in ending drug addiction.
 1
Cognitive 4
PERSPECTIVE:
 Cognitive perspective began to take hold
during 1960s.
 This perspective focuses on mental processes
such as memory, thinking, problem solving,
language and decision-making.
 Cognitive psychologists often utilize an
information-processing model, comparing the
human mind to a computer, to conceptualize
how information is acquired, processed,
stored, and utilized.
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BIOLOGICAL 5
PERSPECTIVE:
 Biological perspective is the scientific study of
the biological base of behavior and mental
state.
 A biological perspective on psychology look at
how genetics influence different behaviors or
how damage to specific areas of the brain
influence behavior and personality.
 It studies about how does activity in our brain
and other part of nervous system, hormones
released by our gland and bodily changes
induces us to behave.
Evolutionary 1
6
PERSPECTIVE:
 The Evolutionary approach explains behavior
in terms of the selective pressures that shape
behavior. Most behaviors that we see/display
are believed to have developed during our
EEA (environment of evolutionary adaptation)
to help us survive.
cont.. 1
7
 The early behaviorists strictly advocates for
behavior is the consequence of experience
and learning.
 But Modern psychologist, believes that
human behavior have evolutionary history
which equips them with inherited
tendencies or disposition.
 Psychologists and researchers take the
basic principles of evolution, including
natural selection, and apply them to
psychological phenomena. This perspective
suggests that these mental processes exist
because they serve an evolutionary
purpose – they aid in survival and
Psychodynamics 1
8
PERSPECTIVE:
 The psychodynamic
perspective originated with the
work of Sigmund Freud.
 This view of psychology
emphasizes the role of the
unconscious mind, early
childhood experiences, and
interpersonal relationships to
explain human behavior and to
treat people suffering from
mental illnesses.
cont.. 1
9
 According to this perspective
these and many other puzzling
aspects of behavior stem from
continuous and largely
unconscious struggle among the
hidden forces deep within our
personalities
Social and Cultural 2
0
PERSPECTIVE:
 The social cultural perspective mention
that, The behavior and mental processes
are shaped not only by learning
experience(Behavioral perspective) or
internal forces(psychodynamic perspective)
but also by the social and cultural context.
 An individuals perception, feelings and
action are strongly influenced by social and
cultural system in which they live.
 In order to fully understand the behavior
one must take this factor into account
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Humanistic 1

Perspective:
 During the 1950s, a school of thought known as
humanistic perspective emerged. Influenced
greatly by the work of prominent humanists such
as Carl Roger and Abraham Maslow, this
perspective emphasizes the role of motivation on
thought and behavior.
 According to them people strive to reach their full
potential if they are given opportunity.
Cont. 2
2

 self-actualization is an essential part of this

perspective. Those who take the humanist
perspective focus on the ways that human
beings are driven to grow, change, and
develop their personal potential.

 Thus, suggest that all individual naturally

strive to grow develop and be in control of
their lives and behavior.
Cont. 2
3
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PSYCHOLOGICAL 4
TRENDS FOR NEW
MILLENIUM:
 As its knowledge base grows, psychology
will become increasingly specialized and
new perspective will evolve.

 For example our growing understanding of

brain and the nervous system, combined
with scientific advances in genetics and
gene therapy will allow psychologist to
focus on prevention of psychological
disorder.
Cont.. 2
5

 The evolving sophistication of neuro

scientific approaches is likely to have
increasing influence over other branches
of psychology.
 For instance social psychologists already
are increasing their understanding of
social behavior such as persuasion by
using brain scans as part of an evolving
field known as social neuroscience.
Cont.. 2
6

 Psychology’s influence on issues

of public interest also will grow.
The major problem such as
violence, terrorism, racial and
ethnic prejudice, poverty and
environmental and technological
disaster.
2
7
RESEARCH METHOD 2
8
IN PSYCHOLOGY:

 NATURALISTIC (Observation)
METHOD
 CORRELATION METHOD
 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
 NATURALISTIC 2
9
METHOD:
 Naturalistic observation is systematic study of
behavior in natural setting.
 This technique involves observing subjects in
their natural environment.
 This type of research is often utilized in
situations where conducting lab research is
unrealistic.
 Psychologists have classified naturalistic method
in various way according to the involvement of
observer. They are:
i. Participatory observation
ii. Non- participatory observation
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0
Participatory observation:

 In participatory observation the

observer is engaged in various activities
of subject under study.
 For example: If an observer participates
in marriage ceremony while studying
the marriage custom of certain social
group then this is participatory
observation
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1
Non- participatory observation:

 In Non- participatory observation the

observer is not engaged in the activities
of subject under study.
 He/she just observe behavior from
distance.
 For example: study of wild life in there
natural setting.
 ADVANTAGES OF 3
2
NATURALISTIC
MERHOD:
 The advantages of this type of research
is that it allows the researcher to
directly observe the subject in a natural
setting.

 In this method spontaneous behavior

are more likely to happen. Participants
are not aware that they are being
observed. So, they will show natural
behavior.
Disadvantages OF 3
3
NATURALISTIC
MERHOD:
 This method is very weak in finding out
cause and effect relationship.

 This method can describe overt

behavior only.

 Different observers may draw different

conclusions from the same witnessed
behavior.
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CORRELATION 4
METHOD:
 This method studies relationship between
two variable.
 It shows if changes on one variable bring
changes on another variable or not.
 Relation between selected variable shows
following correlation:
i. positive correlation
ii. Negative correlation
iii. Zero correlation
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positive correlation: 5

 A positive correlation indicate that as the

value of one variable increase, value of
other variable will also increase.
 For Example. If we predict that the more
time the student spend for studying, the
higher grades he will attain and vice
versa.
 In such case the correlation would be
indicated by positive number ranging
between 0 and 1.
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Negative correlation: 6

 A negative correlation tells us that as

the value of one variable increases the
value of other variables decreases.
 For Example. The increase in study hour
spent cause decrease in playing hour
and vice versa.
 In such case the correlation would be
indicated by negative number ranging
between 0 and -1.
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Zero correlation: 7

 Some time their can be little or negative

relationship between the variables.

 For Example. We cant expect any kind of

relationship between number of study
hours and the height.

 Lack of relationship would be indicated by

a correlation close to 0.
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EXPERIMENTAL 8
METHOD:
 In experimental method experiments are carried
out at artificial environment in controlled
condition.

 Thus, experiments are usually conducted in

laboratory situation for finding out cause and
effect relationship between two variable.

 Research is done by intentionally producing a

change one variable and observing the effect of
that change on other aspect of change.
Cont.. 3
9
 The change that researchers makes in an
experiment in known as experimental
manipulation.
 The various steps involved are as follows:
i. DEVELOP HYPOTHESIS
ii. DESIGN OF STUDY
iii. COLLECTION OF DATA
iv. ANALYSIS OF DATA
v. CONCLUSION
vi. REPORTING RESULT
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DEVELOP 0
HYPOTHESIS:
 Here researcher make a educated
guess about relationship between two
or more variables.
 It also defines a relationship between
two variables as independent variables
and dependent variables.
 For. Example.. The researcher might be
interested in relationship between
typing speed and background music.
Cont.. 4
1

 researcher would then purpose

hypothesis about how these variables are
related, such as “typing speed decreases
as a result of increase in back ground
music”.
 Here,

 Independent Variable: background music

 Dependent Variable : Typing Speed
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DESIGN OF STUDY: 2

 Once the hypothesis is set, the

researcher than identify how the
research must be conducted.

 It consists of procedural of conducting

the experiments.
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COLLECTION OF 3
DATA:

 Afterdesigning procedurals,
researcher collects the data
to test hypothesis.
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ANALYSIS OF DATA: 4

 Afterthe collection data,

collected data are analyzed
by appropriate statistical
method.
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CONCLUSION: 5

 Based on the analysis of data,

conclusion is drawn.
 Conclusion drawn is about the
hypothesized relationship
between dependent and
independent variables.
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REPORTING RESULT: 6

 Finally,The process used in and

the result obtained from the study
are gathered and written.

 If study result are of sufficient

significance, they may be
published in a scientific Journal.
 ADVANTAGES OF 4
7
experimental
MERHOD:
 The most striking feature of this method
is that, it is very strong in determining
the cause and effect relation between
independent and dependent variables.
 The experimenter has control over his
experiment. He can manipulate
variables the way he want and can
make some variable constant.
disadvantages OF 4
8
experimental
MERHOD:
 Experimental situation is artificial and
results may not be generalized well to
the real world.
 Though some control is there, absolute
control over variables is not possible.
Because we are conducting
experiments on human or animal, we
can not control personal difference
which may affect dependent variables.
PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERY 4
9
DAY LIFE:
 GET MOTIVATED
 IMPROVE LEADERSHIP SKILL
 MAKE US BETTER COMMUNICATOR
 IMPROVE OUR MEMORY
 BECOMING MORE PRODUCE
 BE HEALTHIER
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GET MOTIVATED: 0

 Motivation is literally the desire to do things.

Getting motivated is essential from setting a
goal upto getting that goal.
 And its human nature to set goal after goal,
until not being to their final
destination(DEATH).
 Psychology Introduce novel element to keep
your interest high for achieving your goal.
 Learn new things that build on your existing
knowledge and made you more curious.
 Reward yourself for a job done well.
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IMPROVE 1
LEADERSHIP SKILL:
 “Leader leads not due to need, but due of
their deeds”.
 None of is by born leader. It is a acquired
personality. few simple tips borrowed
from psychological research can help you
to improve leadership skill.
i. provide clear guidance, but allow group members to voice
opinions.
ii. Talk about possible solutions to the problems with members
of group.
iii. Focus in generating ideas and be willing to reward
creativity.
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MAKE US BETTER 2
COMMUNICATOR:
 Communication involves a lot than only speaking & writing.
 For any one to have communication more effectively one
need to learn how to express word nonverbally & to read
nonverbal indications of those around him/her.
 The key strategies one should look at include the following:
i. Be a good observant,
ii. Use good eye contact,
iii. Start noticing nonverbal signals in others,
iv. Learn to use your tone of voice to reinforce your message.
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IMPROVE OUR 3
MEMORY:
 Research on how someone forms a new
memories as well as how & why we forgot has
led us to the improvement of our memory.
 Consider the following tips to increase your
memory power:
i. Focus on Information.
ii. Rehearse what you have learned.
iii. Eliminate distractions.
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4
BECOMING MORE
PRODUCE:
Research had suggested following key points for

becoming more produce:

i. Avoid multitasking when working on complex

or dangerous tasks.
ii. Focus on the task at hand.
iii. Eliminate distractions.
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5
BE HEALTHIER:
 Studies have shown that both sunlight
and artificial light can reduce the
symptoms of seasonal affective
disorder.
 Exercise can be an effective treatment
for depression as well as other mental
disorders.
 Also that helping people understand the
risks of unhealthy behaviors can lead to
healthier choice.