Mussel Culture

• Mussels are bivalve molluscs and are found attached to

rocks or any other hard substratum by means of byssus
thread secreted by the body.
• They belong to the family Mytilidae.
• Mussels inhabit a wide range of estuarine and marine
environments.
• They are sessile and attach to rocks, jetties and piers, or
sometimes form dense beds on sandy flat substrates. These
areas known as Mussel beds.
• The mussel meat is soft and rich in nutrients contain
– glycogen (6-8%)
– protein (11-13%)
– fat (2- 3%),
– minerals and nutrients.
• Mussel shell is a source lime and manure.
• In India two species of marine mussels, namely the green mussel
(Perna viridis) and the brown mussel (P. indica) contribute to the
fishery.
– The green mussel has a wider distribution in India especially in Kerala
extending from Quilon to Kasaragod.
– It is found the intertidal zone to a depth of 15 m.
– On the other hand, P. indica has restricted distribution and is found along the
southwest coast from Varkala near Quilon to Kanyakumari and from there to
Tiruchendur along the southeast coast.
– It occurs from the intertidal region to a depth of 10m.
• Kerala is considered as the Mussel fishery zone of India since
extensive beds of both the green and brown mussel occur in this state
which also account for the bulk of mussel production in India.
• Mussels are filter feeders and do not require additional feeding.
• They strain phytoplankton from the water.
• They prefer plankton in the size range of 4 to 120 m (microns),with
the majority of food being less than 20 m.
Growth and reproduction
• Green mussel shows a rapid growth rate by length of 8mm-
13.5mm per month.
• Under average culture conditions,
– green mussel attain a length of 80-88mm with 36.5-40g weight
– brown mussel and 65mm with 25-40g
• in 5 months

• Mussels are unisexual.

• The gonad
– mature female is bright orange-red color
– male is creamy yellow.
• They attain sexual maturity in two months (15-28mm).
• Spawning period is prolonged extending from January –
September with peak spawning during June – September in
Kerala.
• Spawning is initiated by either sex with each releasing gametes into the
water.
• Spawning has also been induced
– by the presence of other spawning individuals in the area
– a drop in salinity.
• Females release about 5 lakh eggs.
• Seven to eight hours after fertilization, the zygote is completely
transformed into mobile, trochophore larvae.
• After 16 to 19 hours the veliger larval stage is reached with the larval
shell covering the internal body parts and developing a strong ciliated
velum.
• The straight hinge D shaped larvae metamorphoses to pediveliger with a
pedal organ, the functional foot and descends to the bottom.
• The larvae completely metamorphosize in eight to twelve days.
• In 10-12 days the larva secretes the initial byssal threads and attaches
itself.
• Changes in organ system takes place and the post larvae with
characteristics of adult mussel called spat are formed.
Mussel culture methods
• The technique for farming mussels is very simple
– and uses the property of mussels to adhere to a solid
substratum using its byssus.
• Young mussels (spats) of 15-30 mm size are collected from
natural beds during the settlement season and wrapped
around a thick nylon or coir rope using degradable cotton
netting.
• The mussels attach to the ropes in about 3-5 days and
within a week the cotton netting disintegrates.
• These ropes are then suspended from either a rack, long
line or raft structures.
Site selection
• Open sea and estuarine areas free from strong wave action are
suitable for farming.
• Unpolluted and sheltered areas with clear water, plankton
availability and moderate water current are preferred for mussel
culture.
• The water should have a salinity of 27-35 ppt and temperature of
26°C - 32° C.
Seed collection
• Young mussels are called mussel seed or spat.
• The spawning season of the green mussel is between July and
September and the spats are found carpeting the intertidal and
submerged rocks.
• The seeds are collected using ropes, poles, bamboo sticks etc.
• The seeds can also be collected using spat collectors such as roof
tiles, coir ropes and nylon ropes.
Methods of farming
• There are different techniques of mussel culture.
• They are
– on bottom culture,
– bouchot culture,
– raft culture,
– long line culture
– rack culture.
1. Rack method
• This method is especially suited for estuaries and shallow seas.
• Bamboo or casurina poles are driven into the bottom spaced 1-2 m apart.
• These stakes are connected horizontally with poles.
• The horizontal poles should be above the level of water at high tide.
• Seeded rope can be suspended in to the water for farming from these poles.
• Three seeded ropes can be suspended from one square metre area of the
rack
2. Long Line Method
• This method is ideal for unprotected open sea conditions.
• Synthetic rope of 16- 20 mm diameter is used for the long line (main line).
The main line is supported with 220 litre barrels tied to it, spaced at 5 m.
• The long line and barrels are anchored in position at either ends using
concrete blocks and nylon ropes.
• From these long lines, ropes containing spat are hung down vertically
3. Raft Culture
• It is ideal for open sea conditions, which are not rough.
• Here mussels are grown on ropes suspended in water column from rafts.
• The rafts are rectangular or square wooden frame made with sturdy bamboo or
casurina poles.
• Buoyancy for the raft is provided by tying 5 barrels of 200 litre capacity one each
at the four corners and one in the middle
• Ideal size of the raft is 5x5 m.
• The rafts are to be positioned at suitable site in the sea using iron, granite or
concrete anchors.
• Seeded ropes are suspended from this raft
4. Bouchot or Intertidal Pole Culture or stake
culture
• This method is practiced in France and Philippines.
• It is suitable where the bottom is muddy and the tidal
amplitude is high.
• Poles (called bouchots) of 20 cm diameter and 3-4 m
length are driven into the substratum to a depth of 1
m in the intertidal area.
• The poles are spaced 1 m apart.
• Mussel seed collected on horizontally placed ropes is
removed and placed in plastic net tubing and wrapped
spirally around the large vertical poles or bouchot in
the intertidal zone
• A barrier is placed at the bottom of the pole to
prevent predators such as crabs from reaching the
mussels.
• This method of culture requires large tidal ranges, in
order to supply the densely packed mussels with food.
5. On-Bottom Culture
• This method is widely used in Netherlands, Denmark and Germany.
• The culture is based on the principle of transferring seeds from areas
of great abundance (where growth is poor) to culture plots in lower
density to obtain better growth and fattening of the mussel
• The culture plots must have a firm substratum and less of drifting sand
and silt particles.
Harvesting

• When mussels reach marketable size, they are

manually removed and washed thoroughly.

• The mussels are separated with the help of sharp

wedge.

• The mussels with different sizes are sorted and

marketed.
PEARL CULTURE
Pearl culture
• The pearl oysters belong to the genus Pinctada(Roding)
come under the family Pteriidae.
• They occur in almost all the seas of the tropical and sub
tropical belt.
• They inhabit the sea bottom from low tide level to
depths down to 80 m.
• Although 28 species of pearl oysters are reported, only 3
species have been found to produce pearls of gem
quality and have commercial value.
• They are Pinctada maxima, Pinctada margaritifera and
Pinctada fucata
Pearl formation
• Pearl is iridescent material formed by molluscs. It consist
of nacre or mother of pearl.
• Pearlis a composite
– mineral Aragonite (Calcium Carbonate) and
– the organic compound conchiolin (a protein).
• A pearl is formed when a foreign body, such as a grain of
sand or parasite, lodges into the soft tissue of the pearl
oyster.
• Since the oyster cannot always get rid of this irritant, it
protects itself by secreting nacreous substance that gets
deposited over the foreign body in thin micro layers, thus
forming a pearl
• The mantle epithelium at the point of contact of foreign body undergoes
changes.
• The outer epithelium regenerates a new layer of cells, which spreads over the
foreign body and covers it completely. This layer is called the pearl-sac.
• The pearl-sac epithelium secretes nacre around the foreign body, which
becomes the nucleus or core material of the pearl.
• The pearl oysters learn to live with the encysted pearl.
• The pearl grows in size as the oyster grows.
The nacreous layer of the
pearl is secreted by the outer
epithelial layer of the mantle.

This layer has the capability

to rearrange and regenerate
itself and remain viable when
disturbed and also when
transplanted in other tissues
of the animal.
The inner epithelium and the
connective tissue, on the
other hand, would
disintegrate when
transplanted.
Culture of pearls
• The culture of pearl is a complex and highly sensitive
process.
• The natural process of pearl formation is employed in the
mass production of pearls by culture method.
• Pearl culture involves the following steps:

• 1. Collection of oysters
• 2. Preparation of graft tissue
• 3. Preparation of nucleus
• 4. Implantation
• 5. Rearing of oysters
• 6. Harvesting
1. Collection of oysters

• To produce cultured pearls, the first basic need is the availability of

good quality healthy marine oysters or freshwater mussels for nucleus
grafting.
• They are obtained either from their natural habitat or raised from juvenile
oyster (called as ‘spat’) collected from nature or hatchery.

• Oysters of
– 1.5-2 years age and attaining a weight of 25g and size of about 40-45
mm are the ideal for implantation
– while 20g oysters can also be considered for implantation of smaller size
nuclei, i.e. 2–3mm in diameter.

• Reproductively spent oysters are selected for implantation

the fully-grown gonads block the visibility of the implantation site and,
hence the proper orientation of the mantle piece and nucleus cannot be
ensured.
2. Preparation of graft tissue
• The piece of mantle tissue to be inserted to the oyster is
called graft tissue.
• It is a small bit of 2X2 mm size isolated from the mantle
of a healthy oyster, which is selected as donor.
3. Preparation of nucleus
• The nucleus is the foreign material which is inserted into
the oyster.
• It serve as the irritant and the pearl is formed around it.
• It is in the form of a bead of 2mm size. It is prepared from
the molluscan shell.
4. Implantation
• Insertion of nucleus along with graft tissue on oyster is
known as implantation.
• For this
– the conditioned oyster is mounted correctly between two
plates of the oysters stand.
– The foot is exposed.
– A small incision is made on the foot.
– On this incision graft tissue is placed.
– The nucleus is placed on the graft tissue.
– The entire process should be completed in 30 minutes
There are three important methods of implantation.
1. Mantle cavity implantation
• Here, the nucleus is placed between the mantle and the shell.
• Mantle secretes nacreous substance over the nucleus to produce hemispherical
(blister) pearl on the inner surface of the shell.
2. Mantle tissue insertion
• The shell nucleus along with the strip of graft is surgically inserted.
• First, a hole or cut is made on the mantle of the host and then the
nucleus is placed inside a tiny bag of graft is implanted in the incision
just below the surface of the mantle.
• Small rounded or spherical pearls are formed.
3. Gonadal insertion
• Gonad is the ideal place for insertion as the rate of synthesis of
pearl material is high.
• For this, the oysters after spawning are placed in shallow tray of sea water.
• When oysters open the shells, a wedge is placed between the valves.
• The graft tissue along with the nucleus inserted in a small incision made on the
gonad.
5. Rearing of oysters
• Post operational handling is very essential.
• For this, the freshly implanted oysters are placed in the fresh seawater with
mild circulation for two to three days in the laboratory under close observation.
• This process is referred to convalescence.
• In 2-3 days, the incision wound heals completely.
• The implanted dead oysters are removed and healthy ones are shifted to natural
environment.

• After convalescence, implanted pearl oysters are examined individually by

fluoroscopy method to check the condition of the inserted nucleus.
• Only those with the nucleus in the proper position are cultured further for
pearl production.
• They are placed in box cages and are transferred to farms to be suspended from
raft or racks or long line at the depth of 3-5m in the sea of high phytoplankton
production.
• The surviving oysters are cultured for four to eighteen months depending on the
nucleus size inserted and desired final size of pearl.
6. Harvesting
• Pearls attain their maximum size in three years.
• Harvesting of pearls from cultured oysters is carried out
manually preferably in cold seasons.
• For procuring pearls, oysters are brought to the laboratory
from farms.
• Then, their adductor muscle is cut, and pearls are removed
by squeezing out the gonad.
• If the oyster is to be reused for implantation, adductor
muscle is not cut and two valves are opened softly and pearl
is extracted with the help of needle.
• The oysters are transferred to farm for re-implantation after
recovery.