Heat Transfer

Heat and Temperature

 Heat is the form of energy that is transferred between

two substances at different temperatures.
 Heat is a transient form energy which can be
observed on boundary.
 The direction of energy flow is from the substance of
higher temperature to the substance of lower
temperature.
 Heat is measured in units of energy, usually calories
or joules. Heat and temperature are often used
interchangeably, but this is incorrect. 
 Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness of matter.
Stated another way, temperature is the average kinetic energy
per molecule of a substance. Temperature is measured in
degrees on the Celsius (C) or Fahrenheit (F) scale, or in
kelvins (K).
 In simplest terms, temperature is how hot or cold an object is,
while heat is the energy that flows from a hotter object to a
cooler one.
 For example, the temperature of a cup of coffee may feel hot
if you put your hand around it. It is hot because heat from the
coffee is transferred to the cup.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the
conservation of energy principle, states that energy can neither
be created nor destroyed; it can only change forms. Therefore,
every bit of energy must be accounted for during a process.
 The conservation of energy principle (or the energy balance)
for any system undergoing any process may be expressed as
follows: The net change (increase or decrease) in the total
energy of the system during a process is equal to the
difference between the total energy entering and the total
energy leaving the system during that process. That is,
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction
 Conduction
 Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a
result of interactions between the particles.
 Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
 In gases and liquids , conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
 In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.
 A cold canned drink in a warm room, for example, eventually
warms up to the room temperature as a result of heat transfer from
the room to the drink through the aluminum can by conduction.
T1-T2 =dt
Fourier’s law for rate of heat
conduction
 Assumptions of Fourier equation:

 Steady state heat conduction.

 One directional heat flow.
 Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character that is
constant and uniform temperatures are maintained at the
two faces.
 Isotropic and homogeneous material and thermal
conductivity ‘k’ is constant.
 Constant temperature gradient and linear temperature
profile.
 No internal heat generation.
 Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity of a material can be defined
as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness
of the material per unit area per unit temperature
difference. The thermal conductivity of a material is a
measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat.
A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that
the material is a good heat conductor, and a low value
indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or
insulator
Electrical Analogy of conduction
Heat transfer Through composite
Heat Transfer Through cylinder
 Critical Thickness of Insulation –
Critical Radius
We know that by adding more insulation to a wall always
decreases heat transfer. The thicker the insulation, the
lower the heat transfer rate. This is expected, since the
heat transfer area A is constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal resistance of the wall
without affecting the convection resistance.
Rwall = L/KA
Adding insulation to a cylindrical piece or a
spherical shell, however, is a different matter.
The additional insulation increases the
conduction resistance of the insulation layer but
decreases the convection resistance of the
surface because of the increase in the outer
surface area for convection. The heat transfer
from the pipe may increase or decrease,
depending on which effect dominates.
Consider a cylindrical pipe of
outer radius r1 whose outer
surface temperature T1 is
maintained constant (Figure).
The pipe is now insulated with
a material whose thermal
conductivity is k and outer
radius is r2. Heat is lost from
the pipe to the surrounding
medium at temperature T∞
with a convection heat transfer
coefficient h . The rate of heat
transfer from the insulated
pipe to the surrounding air can
be expressed as
CONVECTION
 CONVECTION…………
 Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid in motion.
 and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
 The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat
transfer.
 In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between
a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
 The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat
transfer between the solid surface and the fluid, but it also
complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.
 Convection is called forced convection
if the fluid is forced to flow over the
surface by external means such as a fan,
pump, or the wind.
 In contrast, convection is called natural
(or free) convection if the fluid motion
is caused by buoyancy forces that are
induced by density differences due to the
variation of temperature in the fluid .

 The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be

proportional to the temperature difference, and is
conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as
 where h is the convection heat transfer
coefficient in W/m2°C,
 As is the surface area through which
convection heat transfer takes place,
 Ts is the surface temperature, and
 T∞ is the temperature of the fluid
sufficiently far from the surface.
 Note that at the surface, the fluid
temperature equals the surface
temperature of the solid.
Electrical analogy of convection
RADIATION
Wavelength, λ, µm
Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in
the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike
conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does
not require the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, energy
transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers
no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface
at an absolute temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–
Boltzmann law as
where σ = 5.67 108 W/m2 · K4 · σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann
constant. The idealized surface that emits radiation at this
maximum rate is called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted
by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation. The radiation
emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a
blackbody at the same temperature, and is expressed as

where ɛ is the emissivity of the surface. The property

emissivity,whose value is in the range 0≤ ɛ ≤ 1, is a measure of
how closely a surface approximates a blackbody for which ɛ= 1.
Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity
Everything around us constantly emits radiation, and the
emissivity represents the emission characteristics of those
bodies. This means that every body, including our own, is
constantly bombarded by radiation coming from all
directions over a range of wavelengths. Recall that radiation
flux incident on a surface is called irradiation and is
denoted by G.

When radiation strikes a surface, part of it is absorbed, part of

it is reflected, and the remaining part, if any, is transmitted, as
illustrated in Figure
The fraction of irradiation
absorbed by the surface is
called the absorptivity α , the
fraction reflected by the surface
is called the reflectivity ρ , and
the fraction transmitted is
called the transmissivity τ. That
is,
 Black Body
a black body is an object that absorbs all the
radiant energy reaching its surface from all the
direction with all the with all the wavelengths. it
is perfect absorbing body.
α =1, ρ=0 , τ= 0
 White body
If all the incident radiation falling on the body
are reflected , it is called a white body .
α=0, ρ=1 , τ= 0
 Opaque body
When no irradiation is transmitted through the
body, it is called ‘opaque body’ . Examples : all
the thick metallic and non-metalic surface , all
liquids, etc.
τ= 0
 Gray body
A gray body is defined as a body whose
absorptivity of a surface does not vary with
variation in temperature and wavelength of the
incident radiation.
0<α<1, 0<ρ<1 , 0<τ< 0
CONDENSERS
Condensers
1) Air cooled condensers
a) Natural convection type
b) Forced convection type

2) Water cooled condensers

a) Double pipe or tube-in-tube type
b) Shell-and-coil type
c) Shell-and-tube type

3) Evaporative condensers

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 Natural convection type
 In natural convection type, heat transfer
from the condenser is by buoyancy
induced natural convection and radiation.

 Due to small air flow and low radiation

heat transfer, the combined heat transfer
coefficient in these condensers is small.

 As a result a relatively large condensing

surface is required to reject a given amount
of heat.

 Example -
household refrigerators and freezers.

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 Forced convection type
 In forced convection type condensers, the
circulation of air over the condenser
surface is maintained by using a fan or a
blower.

 These condensers normally use fins

on air- side for good heat transfer.

 The fins can be either plate type or

annular type.

 Forced convection type condensers are

commonly used in window air
conditioners, water coolers and packaged
air conditioning plants.

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Water cooled condensers:

Double pipe (tube-in-tube) type

Shell-and-coil type condenser
condenser
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A two-pass, shell-and-tube
type condenser
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 Evaporative condenser
 In evaporative condensers, both air and
water are used to extract heat from the
condensing refrigerant.

 In these condensers, the water is

sprayed from top part on a bank of tubes
carrying the refrigerant and air is
induced upwards.

 There is a thin water film around the

condenser tubes from which evaporative
cooling takes place.

 The heat transfer coefficient for

evaporative cooling is very large.
Hence, the refrigeration system can be
operated at low condensing
temperatures (about 11 to13 K above
the wet bulb temperature of air).

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Heat Exchanger
 What are heat exchangers?

• Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer

heat energy from one fluid to another.
 TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
The simplest type of heat exchanger consists of two
concentric pipes of different diameters, as shown
in Figure, called the double-pipe heat exchanger.
On The Basis of direction of Fluid flow
(a) Parallel flow- both the hot and cold fluids enter
the heat exchanger at the same end and move in
the same direction.
(b) counter flow-on the other hand, the hot and
cold fluids enter the heat exchanger at opposite
ends and flow in opposite directions.
(c) Cross flow
shell-and-tube type
Direct and Indirect Heat Exchanger
THE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT
Regenerator
Cold and Hot fluid flows alternatively.
Recuperator
Hot and hot fluids flows simultaneously.
 Fouling Factor
The performance of heat exchangers usually
deteriorates with time as a result of
accumulation of deposits on heat transfer
surfaces. The layer of deposits represents
additional resistance to heat transfer and causes
the rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger to
decrease. The net effect of these accumulations
on heat transfer is represented by a fouling
factor Rf , which is a measure of the thermal
resistance introduced by fouling.