Partition of British India

Facts and some events leading to Partition

Lord Clive and Mir Jaffar at Palassey
 Basic elements
• The division of British India in 1947 resulted in the creation of two independent states,
India and Pakistan
• These are now the Republic of India, Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People’s Republic
of Bangladesh
• The partition involved the division of three provinces, Assam, Bengal and Punjab
• The boundary demarcating India and Pakistan became known as the Radcliffe Line
• It also involved the division of the army, navy, civil services and central treasury
• The partition was set forth in the Indian Independence Act 1947. The two self-governing
countries of Pakistan and India legally came into existence at midnight on 14–15 August
1947.
• The partition displaced over 14 million people along religious lines, creating overwhelming
refugee crises; there was large-scale violence resulting in deaths of over 2 million people
• The violent nature of the partition created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion
between India and Pakistan that persists even today.
 Basic elements
• The term partition of India does not cover the emergence of Bangladesh in
1971
• It also do cover the earlier separations of Burma (now Myanmar) and Ceylon
(now Sri Lanka) from British India
• The term also does not cover the political integration of the princely states
into the two new dominions, nor the disputes of annexation or division
arising in the princely states of Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Jammu and
Kashmir, though violence along religious lines did break out in some princely
states at the time of the partition
• It does not cover the incorporation of the enclaves of French India into India
during the period 1947–1954, nor the annexation of Goa and other districts
of Portuguese India by India in 1961
• Other political entities in the region in 1947, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal and
Maldives remained unaffected by the partition.
 British actions of significance
• In 1905, the viceroy Lord Curzon, divided the largest administrative subdivision in British India,
the Bengal Presidency, into the Muslim-majority province of East Bengal and Assam and the Hindu-
majority province of Bengal (present-day Indian states of West Bengal and Bihar, Jharkhand
and Orisa).
• The partition of Bengal, ML considered felicitous had transformed the nationalist politics. It was
purely an administrative act
• The Hindu elite of Bengal, among them many who owned land in East Bengal that was leased out to
Muslim peasants, protested strongly
• The large Bengali Hindu middle-class upset at the prospect of Bengalis being outnumbered in the
new Bengal province by Biharis and Oriyas, felt that Curzon's act was punishment for their political
assertiveness. They boycotted of British goods and their protest occasionally turned to violance
• The violence was not well thought or coordinated were either preempted by the British or
failed. The rallying cry for both types of protest was the slogan Bande Matram (trans. "Hail to the
Mother")
• The unrest spread from Calcutta to the surrounding regions of Bengal when Calcutta's English-
educated students returned home to their villages and towns
• The religious stirrings of the slogan and the political outrage over the partition were combined as
young men, in groups took to bombing public buildings, staging armed robberies, and assassinating
British officials.
 Partition of Bengal-2
• The predominantly Hindu protest against the partition of Bengal and the fear, in its wake, of
reforms favouring the Hindu majority, now led the Muslim elite in India, in 1906, to meet with the
new viceroy, Lord Minto and to ask for separate electorates for Muslims
• They also demanded proportional legislative representation reflecting both their status as former
rulers and their record of cooperating with the British
• In December 1906, to the founding of the All-India Muslim League (AIML) in Dacca
• The Muslim elite's position, which was reflected in the League's position, had crystallized gradually
over the previous three decades, beginning with the 1871 Census of British India, which had first
estimated the populations in regions of Muslim majority
• In the three decades since that census, Muslim leaders across northern India, had intermittently
experienced public animosity from some of the new Hindu political and social groups such as the
Arya Samaj
• In the United Provinces, Muslims became anxious when, in the late 19th century, political
representation increased, giving more power to Hindus, and Hindus were politically mobilized in
the Hindi-Urdu controversy and the anti-cow-killing riots of 1893.
• In 1905, when Tilak and Lajpat Rai attempted to rise to leadership positions in the Congress, and
the Congress itself rallied around symbolism of Kali, Muslim fears increased.
 World War-I significance
• WW1 would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian
and British soldiers would take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout
• India's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s. It was to lead,
among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a founding member of the League of Nations in
1920 and participated as "Les Indes Anglaises" (British India), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp
• Back in India, the leaders of the Indian National Congress would lead to calls for greater self-government for
Indians
• The 1916 Lucknow Session of the Congress was also the venue of an unanticipated mutual effort by the
Congress and the Muslim League, the occasion for which was provided by the wartime partnership between
Germany and Turkey
• Muslims supported Turkey as Khalifah, had also sporadically claimed guardianship of the Islamic holy sites, the
"religious neutrality" of the British, became in doubts
• In the Lucknow Pact, AIML joined the Congress in the proposal for greater self-government that was
campaigned for by Tilak and his supporters; in return, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims
in the provincial legislatures as well as the Imperial Legislative Council
• In 1916, the Muslim League had anywhere between 500 and 800 members and did not yet have its wider
following among Indian Muslims of later years.
 Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms: 1919
• Viceroy Lord Clemsford in July 1918 presented report that formed base for Government of India Act 1919 (also
known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms). The new Act enlarged both the provincial and Imperial  legislative
councils and repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavorable votes
• Although departments like defense, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications, and income-tax were retained
by the Viceroy and the central government, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue, local
self-government were transferred to the provinces
• The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new  system, whereby some areas like education,
agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and
legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and
control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council
• The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps
• A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted
only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate
• In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special
interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British
rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts. Seats were also reserved
for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduate
 Rise of Indian Nationalism
• By 1900, the Congress had emerged as India’s major political party organization but Muslims
were apprehensive as their representation in government service was inadequate
• Cry for religious conversion, cow slaughter, and the language issue deepened their concerns
of minority status and denial of rights if the Congress alone were to represent the people of
India
• 1875, founding of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligharh (renamed Aligarh
Muslim University 1920) with objective to educate Muslims with a major event in Indian
politics
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the first Indian nationalist who opposed the then British education
system that ignored and defamed India's culture, history and values
• In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil
agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all
things British. The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale
that wanted reform within the framework of British rule.
• A Muslim deputation met with Lord Minto, Viceroy in 1905, seeking concessions from the
impending constitutional reforms, including special considerations in government service and
electorates. The British recognized some of the ML petitions by increasing the number of
elective offices reserved for Muslims in the Indian Council Act 1909
 Rise of Indian Nationalism
• Chauri Chaura Incident -- A mob of people at Chauri Chaura (near Gorakhpur) clashed with police and burnt 22
policemen on February 5, 1922. Gandhiji to start the Non-Cooperation movement on Feb. 12, 1922.
• Simon Commission (1927) Constituted to review the political situation and to introduce further reforms and
extension of parliamentary democracy- there were no Indians in it. The Government used brutal repression and
police attacks to break the popular opposition
• INC Lahore Session- On Dec. 19, 1929, under the President ship of J. L. Nehru, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete
independence) as its ultimate goal On Dec. 31, 1929, the newly adopted tri-colour flag was unfurled and an. 26,
1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, was to be celebrated every year
• Revolutionary Activities
a. The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona. Their target was Mr. Rand,
President of the Plague Commission, but Lt. Ayerst was accidentally shot
b. In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress
c. In 1908, a bomb was thrown on the carriage of Kingsford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffarpur. Khudiram,
Kanhaiyalal Dutt, and Satyendranath Bose were hanged
d. In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col. William Curzon Wyllie, the political advisor of India Office in London
e. In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and Lord Hardinge at Delhi
f. In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur to setup Hindustan
Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA). It carried out a train dacoity on Aug. 9, 1925
g. Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S. P. Of Lahore, who ordered lathi charge on
Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec. 17, 1928. They threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929. Bhagat, Rajguru and
 Rise of Indian Nationalism
• National Movement of India
a. Also called the Salt Satyagraha. Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his march from
Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930 for the small village Dandhi to break the salt law. On Apr. 6,
1930, he started civil disobedience movement
First Round Table conference (1930)
a. It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on
Nov. 12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon commission. This was boycotted by INC, Muslim League,
Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there.
• Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931)- Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to
break the ice between Gandhiji and the government. The two (government represented by Irwin and
INC by Gandhiji) signed a pact on March 5, 1931. Congress called off the civil disobedience movement
and agreed to join the second round table conference. The government on its part released the
political prisoners and conceded the right to make salt for consumption for villages along the coast.
• Second Round Table Conference (1931)
a. Gandhi represented the INC and went to London to meet British P. M. Ramsay Macdonald.
b. However, the session got deadlocked on the minorities issue as separate electorates was
demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians, and Anglo-Indians.
 Rise of Indian Nationalism
• The Communal Award (Aug 16, 1932)- Announced by Ramsay McDonald, showed divide and
rule policy of the British
a. It envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, women
and even Backward classes
b. Gandhi, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, started a fast unto death against it
• Poona Pact (September 25, 1932)
a. After the announcement of the communal award and the subsequent fast of Gandhiji,
the mass meeting took place almost everywhere
b. The Poona pact was reached and Gandhi broke his fact on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932)
c. In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but
seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased
• Third Round Table Conference (1932)
a. Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison.
b. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.
 WW-II and India
•  With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the Viceroy of India, Lord
Linlithgow, declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian
leaders
• Leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest
• The Muslim League, in contrast, organized "Deliverance Day", celebrations
(from Congress dominance) and supported Britain in the war effort
• Thousands of Muslims join British army and sacrificed their lives for the
crown
• When Linlithgow, met with nationalist leaders, he gave the same status to
Jinnah as he did to Gandhi, and a month later described the Congress as a
"Hindu organization.“
• British showed favoritism towards Muslims.
 Two Nation Theory
• Choudhry Rahmat Ali in 1933 produced a pamphlet, Now or never, in which the term "Pakistan",
"the land of the pure", comprising the Punjab, North West Frontier Province
(Afghania), Kashmir, Sindh, and Balochistan, was coined for the first time. The pamphlet did not
attract political attention.
• A little later, a Muslim delegation to the Parliamentary Committee on Indian Constitutional Reforms
gave short shrift to the Pakistan idea, calling it "chimerical and impracticable"
• Two years later, the Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy, increasing the
number of voters in India to 35 million
• More significantly, law and order issues were for the first time devolved from British authority to
provincial governments headed by Indians
• This increased Muslim anxieties about eventual Hindu domination
• In the provincial elections, 1937, the Muslim League turned out its best performance in Muslim-
minority provinces such as the United Provinces. However, in the Muslim-majority regions of the
Punjab and Bengal regional parties outperformed ML
• In the Punjab, the Unionist Part of Sikandar Hayat Khan, won the elections and formed a
government, with the support of the Indian National Congress and the Shiromani Akali Dal, which
lasted five years. In Bengal, the League had to share power in a coalition headed by A. K. Fazlul Huq,
the leader of the Krishak Praja Party.
 Two Nation Theory
• The Congress, with 716 seats out of 1585 provincial assemblies seats, was able to form
governments in 7 out of the 11 provinces
• In its manifesto the Congress maintained that religious issues were of lesser importance
to the masses than economic and social issues, however, the election revealed that the
Congress had contested just 58 out of the total 482 Muslim seats, and of these, it won in
only 26
• In UP, where the Congress won, it offered to share power with the League on condition
that the League stop functioning as a representative only of Muslims, which the League
refused
• This proved to be a mistake as it alienated the Congress further from the Muslim masses.
In addition, the new UP provincial administration promulgated cow protection and the
use of Hindi
• The Muslim elite in UP was further alienated, when they saw chaotic scenes of the new
Congress Raj, in which rural people who sometimes turned up in large numbers in
Government buildings, were indistinguishable from the administrators and the law
enforcement personnel.
 Two Nation Theory
• In March 1940, in the League's annual three-day session in Lahore, Jinnah in
his two-hour speech laid out the arguments of the Two-nation theory
• He stated that "Muslims and Hindus ... were irreconcilably opposed
monolithic religious communities and as such no settlement could be
imposed that did not satisfy the aspirations of the former“
• On the last day of its session, the League passed, what came to be known
as the Lahore Resolution also called the "Pakistan Resolution", demanding
that "the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the
North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute
independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and
sovereign"
• ML could only gather support among South Asian Muslims after start of the
Second World War
 Two Nation Theory
• In March 1942, with the Japanese moving up the Malayan Peninsula and fall of Singapore the
Prime Minister of Britain, sent Sir Stafford Cripps, the leader of the House of Commons, with
an offer of dominion status to India at the end of the war in return for the Congress's support
for the war effort
• ML, Unionists of the Punjab, and the Princes—the Cripps offer included a clause stating that
no part of the British Indian Empire would be forced to join the post-war Dominion
• The Congress, saw itself as the representative of all Indians of all faiths
• After the arrival in 1920 of Gandhi, the preeminent strategist of Indian nationalist
• The Congress had been transformed into a mass nationalist movement of millions
• In August 1942, the Congress launched the Quit India Resolution
• With their resources and attention already spread thin by a global war, the nervous British
immediately jailed the Congress leaders and kept them in jail until August 1945
• This provided the Muslim League was now free for the next three years to spread its message
• Consequently, the Muslim League's ranks surged during the war, with Jinnah himself
admitting, "The war which nobody welcomed proved to be a blessing in disguise"
 WW-II and Resistance
• India was under colonial rule as East India Company (1757-1857) and the British
Indian colony (1857-1947)
• The first organised militant movements were in Bengal but they later took
movement in the Indian National Congress (Congress) where moderate leaders
demanded their basic right to appear for Indian Civil Services examinations, as well
as more rights, economic in nature.
• The early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political
self-rule proposed by hardline leaders. Gandhi on the other hand proposed policy
of nonviolence and civil resisitance.
• Nationalists like Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh preached armed revolution
to achieve self-rule. Poets and writers used literature, poetry and speech as a tool
for political awareness.
• The period of the WW-II saw the peak of the campaigns as Quit India (Congress)
and the Indian National Army of Subhas Chandra Bose.