CHAPTER-1.

4
Network Standardization
IEEE 802 Standards
TCP/IP
Features of TCP/IP
NETWORK STANDARDIZATION
■Many network vendors and suppliers exist, each with
its own ideas of how things should be done.
■Without coordination, there would be complete chaos,
and users would get nothing done.
■The only way out is to agree on some network
standards.
■In the area of computer network standards, there are
several organizations of each type, notably ITU, ISO,
IETF and IEEE.
ITU (International
Telecommunication Union)
■ In 1865, representatives from many European governments met
to form the predecessor to today’s ITU.
■ Its job was to standardize international telecommunications,
which in those days meant telegraphy.
■ 1947, ITU became an agency of the United Nations. ITU has
about 200 governmental members, including almost every
member of the United Nations.
■ ITU also has more than 700 sector and associate members. They
include telephone companies (e.g., AT&T, Vodafone, Sprint),
telecom equipment manufacturers (e.g., Cisco, Nokia, Nortel),
computer vendors (e.g., Microsoft, Agilent, Toshiba), chip
manufacturers (e.g., Intel, Motorola, TI), and other interested
companies (e.g., Boeing, CBS, VeriSign).
ITU
■ ITU has three main sectors. We will focus primarily
on ITU-T, the Telecommunications Standardization
Sector, which is concerned with telephone and data
communication systems.
■ ITU-R, the Radio communications Sector, is concerned
with coordinating the use by competing interest
groups of radio frequencies worldwide.
■ The other sector is ITU-D, the Development Sector. It
promotes the development of information and
communication technologies to narrow the ‘‘digital
divide’’ between countries.
ISO (International Standards
Organization)
■ International standards are produced and published
by ISO , a voluntary non-treaty organization
founded in 1946.
■ Its members are the national standards
organizations of the 157 member countries. These
members include ANSI (U.S.), BSI (Great Britain),
AFNOR (France), DIN (Germany), and 153 others.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers)
■ Another major player in the standards world is IEEE,
the largest professional organization in the world.
■ In addition to publishing scores of journals and
running hundreds of conferences each year, IEEE
has a standardization group that develops standards
in the area of electrical engineering and computing.
■ IEEE’s 802 committee has standardized many kinds
of LANs.
IETF (Internet Engineering
Task Force)
■ When the ARPANET was set up, DoD created an informal
committee to oversee it. In 1983, the committee was renamed
the IAB (Internet Activities Board) and was given a slighter
broader mission, namely, to keep the researchers involved
with the ARPANET and the Internet pointed more or less in the
same Direction. The meaning of the acronym ‘‘IAB’’ was later
changed to Internet Architecture Board.
■ In the summer of 1989, the IAB was reorganized again. The
researchers were moved to the IRTF (Internet Research
Task Force), which was made subsidiary to IAB, along with the
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force).
The 802 working groups (Few)

■ 802.3 ----------- Ethernet

■ 802.11 ----------- Wireless LANs (WiFi)
■ 802.15 ----------- Personal area networks (Bluetooth,
Zigbee)
■ 802.16 ----------- Broadband wireless (WiMAX)
The TCP/IP Reference Model

■ TCP/IP Reference Model was first described by Cerf and

Kahn (1974), and later refined and defined as a standard
in the Internet community.
■ TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet
Protocol was developed by Department of Defence's
Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of
a research project of network interconnection to connect
remote machines.
The TCP/IP Reference Model
Layer 1: Host-to-network
Layer or
Network Access
■ Lowest layer of the all.
Layer
■ Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the
packets can be sent over it.
■ Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer

■ Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a

connectionless internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
■ It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
■ It helps the packet to travel independently to the
destination.
■ Order in which packets are received is different from the
way they are sent.
■ IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
Layer 3: Transport Layer

■ It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or

single path.
■ Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the
data is done by transport layer.
■ The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
■ Transport layer adds header information to the data.
■ Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so
that they are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
■ Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in
sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer
The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that
were at the top of the protocol stack. Some of them were
TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
■ TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows
connecting to a remote machine and run applications on it.
■ FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File
transfer amongst computer users connected over a network.
It is reliable, simple and efficient.
■ SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is
used to transport electronic mail between a source and
destination, directed via a route.
■ DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a
textual address for Hosts connected over a network.