C1.2 Algebra and Functions 2

AS-Level Maths:
Core 1
for Edexcel
C1.2 Algebra and

functions 2
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Quadratic expressions
Factorizing quadratics
Contents
Completing the square

Solving quadratic equations
The discriminant
Graphs of quadratic functions
Examination-style questions

A quadratic expression is an expression in which the

highest power of the variable is 2. For example:
t2
x2 – 2 w2 + 3w + 1 4 – 5g2
2
The general form of a quadratic expression in x is:
ax2 + bx + c (where a ≠ 0)
x is a variable.
a is the coefficient of x2.
b is the coefficient of x.
c is a constant term.

Contents

The discriminant

Factorizing quadratic expressions
Factorizing an expression is the inverse of expanding it.
Expanding or multiplying out
(x + 1)(x + 2) x2 + 3x + 2
Factorizing
When we expand an expression we multiply out the brackets.
When we factorize an expression we write it with brackets.

No constant term
Quadratic expressions of the form ax2 + bx can always be
factorized by taking out the common factor x. For example:
3x2 – 5x = x(3x – 5)
The difference between two squares

When a quadratic has no term in x and the other two terms can
be written as the difference between two squares, we can use
the identity
a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)
to factorize it. For example:
9x2 – 49 = (3x + 7)(3x – 7)

Quadratic expressions with a = 1

Quadratic expressions of the form x2 + bx + c can be factorized
if they can be written using brackets as
(x + d)(x + e)
where d and e are integers.
If we expand (x + d)(x + e), we have
(x + d)(x + e) = x2 + dx + ex + de
= x2 + (d + e)x + de

The general form

Quadratic expressions of the general form ax2 + bx + c can be
factorized if they can be written using brackets as
(dx + e)(fx + g)
where d, e, f and g are integers.
If we expand (dx + e)(fx + g), we have
(dx + e)(fx + g)= dfx2 + dgx + efx + eg
= dfx2 + (dg + ef)x + eg

Contents

The discriminant

Perfect squares
Some quadratic expressions can be written as perfect squares.

For example:
x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 x2 – 2x + 1 = (x – 1)2
x2 + 4x + 4 = (x + 2)2 x2 – 4x + 4 = (x – 2)2
x2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2 x2 – 6x + 9 = (x – 3)2
In general:
x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2 or x2 – 2ax + a2 = (x – a)2
How could the quadratic expression x2 + 8x

be made into a perfect square?
We could add 16 to it.

Adding 16 to the expression x2 + 8x to make it into a perfect

square is called completing the square.
We can write x2 + 8x = x2 + 8x + 16 – 16
If we add 16 we then have to subtract 16 so that both sides
are still equal.
By writing x2 + 8x + 16 we have completed the square and so
we can write this as
x2 + 8x = (x + 4)2 – 16
In general:
2 2
 b b
x  bx   x     
2
 2 2

Complete the square for x2 – 10x.
Compare this expression to (x – 5)2 = x2 – 10x + 25

x2 – 10x = x2 – 10x + 25 – 25
= (x – 5)2 – 25
Complete the square for x2 + 3x.
Compare this expression to ( x + 32 )2 = x 2 + 3 x + 94

x 2 + 3 x = x 2 + 3 x + 94  94
= ( x + 32 )2  94

How can we complete the square for

x2 – 8x + 7?
Look at the coefficient of x.

This is –8 so compare the expression to (x – 4)2 = x2 – 8x + 16.
x2 – 8x + 7 = x2 – 8x + 16 – 16 + 7
= (x – 4)2 – 9
In general:
2 2
 b b
x  bx  c   x       c
2
 2 2

Complete the square for x2 + 12x – 5.
Compare this expression to (x + 6)2 = x2 + 12x + 36

x2 + 12x – 5 = x2 + 12x + 36 – 36 – 5
= (x + 6)2 – 41
Complete the square for x2 – 5x + 7.
Compare this expression to ( x  52 )2 = x 2  5 x + 254

x 2  5 x + 7 = x 2  5 x + 254  25
4 7
= ( x + 52 )2  34

When the coefficient of x2 is not 1, quadratic equations in the

form ax2 + bx + c can be rewritten in the form a(x + p)2 + q by
completing the square.
Complete the square for 2x2 + 8x + 3.
Take out the coefficient of x2 as a factor from the terms in x:

2x2 + 8x + 3 = 2(x2 + 4x) + 3
By completing the square, x2 + 4x = (x + 2)2 – 4 so
2x2 + 8x + 3 = 2((x + 2)2 – 4) + 3
= 2(x + 2)2 – 8 + 3
= 2(x + 2)2 – 5
Complete the square for 5 + 6x – 3x2.
Take out the coefficient of x2 as a factor from the terms in x:
5 + 6x – 3x2 = 5 – 3(–2x + x2)

= 5 – 3(x2 – 2x)
By completing the square, x2 – 2x = (x – 1)2 – 1 so
5 + 6x – 3x2 = 5 – 3((x – 1)2 – 1)

= 5 – 3(x – 1)2 + 3
= 8 – 3(x – 1)2

Complete the square

Contents

The discriminant

Quadratic equations
The general form of a quadratic equation in x is:

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (where a ≠ 0)
Quadratic equations can be solved by:

factorization
completing the square, or
using the quadratic formula.
The solutions to a quadratic equation are called the roots of
the equation.
A quadratic equation may have:
two real distinct roots
one repeated root, or
no real roots.
The roots of a quadratic equation
If we sketch the graph of a quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c

the roots of the equation coincide with the points where the
function cuts the x-axis.
As can be seen here, this

can happen twice, once or
not at all.

Solving quadratic equations by factorization
Solve the equation 5x2 = 3x
Start by rearranging the equation so that the terms are on the

left-hand side:
Don’t divide
5x2 – 3x = 0
through by x!
Factorizing the left-hand side gives us

x(5x – 3) = 0
So x=0 or 5x – 3 = 0
5x = 3
x = 35

Solving quadratic equations by factorization
Solve the equation x2 – 5x = –4 by factorization.
Start by rearranging the equation so that the terms are on the

left-hand side.
x2 – 5x + 4 = 0
We need to find two integers that add together to make –5
and multiply together to make 4.
Because 4 is positive and –5 is negative, both the integers
must be negative. These are –1 and –4.
Factorizing the left-hand side gives us
(x – 1)(x – 4) = 0
x–1=0 or x–4=0
x=1 x=4
Solving quadratics by completing the square
Quadratic equations that cannot be solved by factorization can

be solved by completing the square.
For example, the quadratic equation
x2 – 4x – 3 = 0
can be solved by completing the square as follows:
(x – 2)2 – 7 = 0
(x – 2)2 = 7
x–2= 7
x=2+ 7 or x=2– 7
x = 4.65 x = –0.646 (to 3 s.f.)

Solve the equation 2x2 – 4x + 1 = 0 by completing

the square. Write the answer to 3 significant figures.
Start by completing the square for 2x2 – 4x + 1:
2x2 – 4x + 1 = 2(x2 – 2x) + 1
= 2((x – 1)2 – 1) + 1
= 2(x – 1)2 – 2 + 1
= 2(x – 1)2 – 1

Now solving the equation 2x2 – 4x + 1 = 0:
2(x – 1)2 – 1 = 0
2(x – 1)2 = 1
( x  1)2 = 21
x  1=  1
2
x = 1+ 1
2 or x = 1 1
2
x = 1.71 x = 0.293 (to 3 s.f.)

Using the quadratic equation formula
Any quadratic equation of the form
ax2 + bx + c = 0
can be solved by substituting the values of a, b and c into the

formula
b ± b2  4ac
x=
2a
This formula can be derived by completing the square on the

general form of the quadratic equation.

Using the quadratic formula
Use the quadratic formula to solve 2x2 + 5x – 1 = 0.
2x2 + 5x – 1 = 0
b ± b 2  4ac
x=
2a
5 ± 52  (4 × 2 × 1)
x=
2× 2
5 ± 25 + 8
x=
4
5 + 33 5  33
x= or x=
4 4
x = 0.186 x = –2.69 (to 3 s.f.)
Using the quadratic formula
Use the quadratic formula to solve 9x2 – 12x + 4 = 0.
9x2 – 12x + 4 = 0
b ± b 2  4ac
x=
2a
( 12) ± ( 12)2  (4 × 9 × 4)
x=
2× 9
12 ± 144  144
x=
18
12 ± 0
x=
18
There is one repeated root: x = 32
Equations that reduce to a quadratic form
Some equations, although not quadratic, can be written in

quadratic form by using a substitution. For example:
Solve the equation t4 – 5t2 + 6 = 0.
This is an example of a quartic equation in t.

Let’s substitute x for t2:
x2 – 5x + 6 = 0
This gives us a quadratic equation that can be solved by
factorization:
(x – 2)(x – 3) = 0
x=2 or x=3
So t2 = 2 t2 = 3
t =  2 or t= 3
The discriminant
Contents

The discriminant

The discriminant
By solving quadratic equations using the formula

b  b2  4ac
x
2a
we can see that we can use the expression under the square
root sign, b2 – 4ac, to decide how many roots there are.
When b2 – 4ac > 0, there are two real distinct roots.
b
When b – 4ac = 0, there is one repeated root: x   .
2
2a
When b2 – 4ac < 0, there are no real roots.
Also, when b2 – 4ac is a perfect square, the roots of the
equation will be rational and the quadratic will factorize.
b2 – 4ac is called the discriminant of ax2 + bx + c

The discriminant
We can demonstrate each of these possibilities graphically.

Contents

The discriminant

Plotting graphs of quadratic functions
A quadratic function in x can be written in the form:

y = ax2 + bx + c (where a ≠ 0)
We can plot the graph of a quadratic function using a table of

values. For example:
Plot the graph of y = x2 – 4x + 2 for –1 < x < 5.
x –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x2 1 0 1 4 9 16 25
– 4x +4 +0 –4 –8 – 12 – 16 – 20
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2 +2
y = x2 – 4x + 2 7 2 –1 –2 –1 2 7

Plotting graphs of quadratic functions
x –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x2 – 4x + 2 7 2 –1 –2 –1 2 7
The points given in the y

table are plotted … 6
5
… and the points are then
joined together with a 4
smooth curve. 3
2
The shape of this curve is
called a parabola. 1
It is characteristic of a –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
quadratic function. –1

Parabolas
Parabolas have a …and a turning

vertical axis of point called the
symmetry … vertex.
When the coefficient of x2 is positive the vertex is a minimum

point and the graph is -shaped.
When the coefficient of x2 is negative the vertex is a
maximum point and the graph is -shaped.

Exploring graphs of the form y = ax2 + bx + c

Sketching graphs of quadratic functions
When a quadratic function factorizes we can use its factorized

form to find where it crosses the x-axis. For example:
Sketch the graph of the function y = x2 – 2x – 3.
The function crosses the x-axis when y = 0.

x2 – 2x – 3 = 0
(x + 1)(x – 3) = 0
x+1=0 or x–3=0
x = –1 x=3
The function crosses the x-axis at the points (–1, 0) and (3, 0).

By putting x = 0 in y = 2x2 – 5x – 3 we can also find where the

function crosses the y-axis.
y = 2(0)2 – 5(0) – 3
y=–3
So the function crosses the y-axis at the point (0, –3).
In general: The quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c will

cross the y-axis at the point (0, c).
We now know that the function y = x2 – 2x – 3 passes through

the points (–1, 0), (3, 0) and (0, –3) and so we can place these
points on our sketch.

y We can also use the fact that a

parabola is symmetrical to find the
coordinates of the vertex.
(–1, 0) (3, 0)
The x coordinate of the vertex is
0 x half-way between –1 and 3.
(0, –3)
1+ 3
x= =1
(1, –4) 2
When x = 1, y = (1)2 – 2(1) – 3

y = –4
So the coordinates of the vertex are (1, –4).
We can now sketch the graph.
In When a quadratic function is written in the form

general: y = a(x – α)(x – β), it will cut the x-axis at
the points (α, 0) and (β, 0).
α and β are the roots of the quadratic function.
For example, write the quadratic function y = 3x2 + 4x – 4 in the

form y = a(x – α)(x – β) and hence find the roots of the function.
This function can be factorized as follows,
y = (3x – 2)(x + 2)
It can be written in the form y = a(x – p)(x – q) as
y = 3( x  32 )( x  2)
Therefore, the roots are 2
3 and  2.
Exploring graphs of the form y = a(x – α)(x – β)

Sketching graphs by completing the square
When a function does not factorize we can write it in completed

square form to find the coordinates of the vertex. For example:
Sketch the graph of y = x2 + 4x – 1 by
writing it in completed square form.
x2 + 4x – 1 = (x + 2)2 – 5
The least value that (x + 2)2 can have is 0 because the square
of a number cannot be negative.
(x + 2)2 ≥ 0
Therefore (x + 2)2 – 5 ≥ – 5
The minimum value of the function y = x2 + 4x – 1 is therefore
y = –5.

When y = –5, we have,

(x + 2)2 – 5 = –5
(x + 2)2 = 0
x = –2
The coordinates of the vertex are therefore (–2, –5).
The equation of the axis of
x = –2
symmetry is x = –2. y
Also, when x = 0 we have

y = x2 + 4x – 1
y = –1
0 x
So the curve cuts the y-axis at (–1, 0)
the point (–1, 0).
Using symmetry we can now
sketch the graph. (–2, –5)

In general, when the quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c is

written in completed square form as
a(x + p)2 + q
The coordinates of the vertex will be (–p, q).
The axis of symmetry will have the equation x = –p.
Also:
If a > 0 (–p, q) will be the minimum point.
If a < 0 (–p, q) will be the maximum point.
Plotting the y-intercept, (0, c) will allow the curve to be
sketched using symmetry.

Exploring graphs of the form y = a(x + p)2 + q

Contents

The discriminant

Examination-style question
a) Write 2x2 – 8x + 7 in the form a(x + b)2 + c.

b) Write down the minimum value of f(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 7 and
state the minimum value of x where this occurs.
c) Solve the equation 2x2 – 8x + 7 = 0 leaving your answer in
surd form.
d) Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 – 8x + 7.
a) 2x2 – 8x + 7 = 2(x2 – 4x) + 7

= 2((x – 2)2 – 4) + 7
= 2(x – 2)2 – 8 + 7
= 2(x – 2)2 – 1

b) f(x) can be written as f(x) = 2(x – 2)2 – 1

From this we can see that the minimum value of f(x) is –1.
This occurs when x = 2.
c) 2x2 – 8x + 7 = 0
2(x – 2)2 – 1 = 0
2(x – 2)2 = 1
1
(x – 2)2 = 2
x–2=± 1
2
x=2± 1
2
x=2 1
2 or x=2+ 1
2

d) When y = 0, x = 2 – 1
2 or x=2+ 1
2
When x = 0, y = 7
So the graph cuts the coordinate axes at (2 + 1
2 , 0),
(2 – 21 , 0) and (0, 7).
The parabola has a minimum at the point (2, –1).
y
7
2– 1
2+ 1 x
–1 2 2

C1.2 Algebra and Functions 2

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AS-Level Maths:

C1.2 Algebra and

1 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Completing the square

2 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

A quadratic expression is an expression in which the

3 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Completing the square

4 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Factorizing an expression is the inverse of expanding it.

Expanding or multiplying out

5 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

The difference between two squares

6 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Quadratic expressions with a = 1

7 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

The general form

8 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Completing the square

9 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Some quadratic expressions can be written as perfect squares.

x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2 or x2 – 2ax + a2 = (x – a)2

How could the quadratic expression x2 + 8x

We could add 16 to it.

Adding 16 to the expression x2 + 8x to make it into a perfect

11 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Complete the square for x2 – 10x.

Compare this expression to (x – 5)2 = x2 – 10x + 25

Complete the square for x2 + 3x.

Compare this expression to ( x + 32 )2 = x 2 + 3 x + 94

12 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

How can we complete the square for

Look at the coefficient of x.

13 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Complete the square for x2 + 12x – 5.

Compare this expression to (x + 6)2 = x2 + 12x + 36

Complete the square for x2 – 5x + 7.

Compare this expression to ( x  52 )2 = x 2  5 x + 254

14 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

When the coefficient of x2 is not 1, quadratic equations in the

Complete the square for 2x2 + 8x + 3.

Take out the coefficient of x2 as a factor from the terms in x:

Complete the square for 5 + 6x – 3x2.

Take out the coefficient of x2 as a factor from the terms in x:

5 + 6x – 3x2 = 5 – 3(–2x + x2)

By completing the square, x2 – 2x = (x – 1)2 – 1 so

5 + 6x – 3x2 = 5 – 3((x – 1)2 – 1)

16 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

17 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Completing the square

18 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

The general form of a quadratic equation in x is:

Quadratic equations can be solved by:

If we sketch the graph of a quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c

As can be seen here, this

20 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Solve the equation 5x2 = 3x

Start by rearranging the equation so that the terms are on the

Factorizing the left-hand side gives us

21 of 50 © Boardworks Ltd 2005

Solve the equation x2 – 5x = –4 by factorization.

Start by rearranging the equation so that the terms are on the

Quadratic equations that cannot be solved by factorization can