Cell Structure

Chapter 4
 Cell Theory
• Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert
Hooke.

• Early studies of cells were conducted by

• Mathias Schleiden (1838) - plant cells
•Theodor Schwann (1839) - animal cells

• Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell

Theory. 2
 Cell Theory
• Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living things.
3. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells.

• All cells today represent a continuous line

of descent from the first living cells.

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 Cell Theory
• Cell size is limited.
• As cell size increases, it takes longer for
material to diffuse from the cell membrane to
the interior of the cell.

• Surface area-to-volume ratio: as a cell

increases in size, the volume increases 10x
faster than the surface area

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Cell Theory

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 Cell Theory
• Microscopes are required to visualize cells.

• Light microscopes can resolve

structures that are 200nm apart.

• Electron microscopes can resolve

structures that are 0.2nm apart.

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Fig. 4.2
 Cell Theory
• All cells have certain structures in common:

1. Genetic Material – in a nucleoid or nucleus

2. Cytoplasm – a semifluid matrix
3. Plasma Membrane – a phospholipid
bilayer

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 Phospholipids
• Chapter 3: Phospholipids are Amphiphilic molecules

Polar Head Group

Nonpolar Hydrocarbon Tail

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Page 63
 Two Cell Types
1. Prokaryotic Cells
2. Eukaryotic Cells
• Recall Three Domains (Ch. 1)
• Defined by cell type
1.Eukarya
• Plantae Eukaryotic
• Fungi
1.Animlia
2.Protista
2.Bacteria Prokaryotic
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–Archaea 1
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 1. Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cells

• Origin: ‘pro’-before; ‘karyote’ - nut

• Lack a membrane-bound nucleus.
- genetic material is present in the nucleoid
• Two types of prokaryotes:
– Archaea
– Bacteria
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 1. Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotic Cell Characteristics:
• Simplest organisms - simple internal
organization
• Very small (1 to 10 microns across)
• Genetic material in the nucleoid
• No membrane-bound organelles
• Capsules
• Cytoplasm

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 1. Prokaryotic Cells
• Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Characteristics:
• DNA, RNA
• Ribosomes
• Plasma membrane
• Cell walls (bacteria, archaea)
• Flagella
• Pilli

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1. Prokaryotic Cell Structure

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 Prokaryotic Cell Structure

• Prokaryotic cell walls

– Surround and protect cell and maintain cell shape
– Composed of polysaccharides (sugar coated)

• Bacterial cell walls composed of peptidoglycan

• Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

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 Recall Ch. 3
Polysaccharides
b. Function
1. Structural Molecules
Cellulose - plant cell walls

Chitin – Fungi cell walls

Peptidoglycan - Bacterial cell walls

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 Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Bacterial cell walls composed of peptidoglycan
• Two Types of Bacterial Cell Walls
1. Gram Positive
2. Gram Negative

• Gram Positive/Gram Negative type is

determined by cell cell wall structure and the
Gram Stain Reaction

• Gram Positive Bacteria Stain Purple

• Gram Negative Bacteria Stain Pink 1
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 Gram + vs. Gram -
• Gram + Bacteria stain Purple
• Gram – Bacteria stain Pink

Courtesy: Dr. O’Steen

 Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Flagella (singular, flagellum)
• Whip-like proteins attached to cell wall used for
locomotion

• Present in some prokaryotic cells

- one to several flagella on a single cell
• Rotary motion of flagellum propels the cell
through fluid environment

• Flagella powered by protein motors

- uses energy of a proton gradient 2
0
Flagella Structure

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 2. Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
• Origin: ‘eu’ - true, good; ‘karyote’ - nut

• Possess a membrane-bound nucleus.

- genetic material is highly organized within
double-layer nuclear envelope
- DNA never leaves the nuclear envelope
• Types of eukaryotes divided into 4
kingdoms:
1. Plantae 2. Fungi
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3. Animalia 4. Protista 2
 2. Eukaryotic Cells
• Eukaryotic Cell Characteristics:
• More complex organisms
• highly organized structure (compartmentalization)
known as endomembrane system
• Typically larger than prokaryote (10-100 microns)
• Genetic material in the membrane-bound nucleus
• Many membrane-bound organelles
• Cytoplasm
• Cytoskeleton
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 2. Eukaryotic Cells
• Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Characteristics:
• DNA, RNA
• Ribosomes
• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Cell walls (plantae, fungi, protista, not present in
animal cells)
• Flagella

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Eukaryotic Cells

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Eukaryotic Cells

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 Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus
• Largest most definitive organelle in the
cytoplasm
• Surrounded by a nuclear envelope
composed of 2 phospholipid bilayers
• Stores the genetic material of the cell as
long separate chains of DNA known as
chromosomes
• Cell DNA is organized with proteins to
form chromatin 2
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 Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus
• Cell DNA is organized with proteins to
form chromatin
- Chromosomes are tightly packed
(condensed) with proteins inside the nucleus
into nucleosomes

- DNA is wound around histone proteins to

resembles beads on a string

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Fig. 4.9
 Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleolus (plural, nucleoli)
• Dark staining zone within the nucleus
• Composed of RNA
• Synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
occurs here
- rRNA is involved in the translation of DNA into
protein

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 Eukaryotic Cells
Nuclear Envelope
• Composed of an inner and outer
phospholipid bilayer
- the outer layer is continuous with the
membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum -
an organelle for protein synthesis

• Nuclear pores provide passage for

proteins and rRNA into and out of the
nucleus
- DNA never leaves the nucleus 3
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Eukaryotic Cells

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2
 Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes
• Present in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• Composed of ribosomal RNA and
proteins
• Found in the cytoplasm and attached to
internal membranes of the endoplasmic
reticulum
• Important protein function in protein
synthesis in the cell
- Translate the DNA code into RNA 3
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 Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes
• Composed of 2 subunits of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and protein

• The two subunits associate to form

complete Ribosomes

• Other types of RNA assist with protein

synthesis:
- mRNA
- tRNA 3
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Fig. 4.10
 Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system
• A series of membranes throughout the
eukaryotic cytoplasm
• Divides cell into compartments where
different cellular functions occur:
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum
2. Golgi Apparatus
3. Lysosomes

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 Endomembrane System
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Membranes that create a network of
channels throughout the cytoplasm

• Membrane continuous with the outer

membrane of the nuclear envelope

• Location for protein synthesis

• Two Sections of the ER
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
– Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum 3
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 Endomembrane System
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• System of cytoplasmic membranes that
create a network of channels throughout the
cytoplasm
• Ribosomes are attached to the outside of the
RER membrane giving it a rough appearance
under the microscope
• Synthesis of proteins to be secreted out of
the cell, or packaged and sent to lysosomes
or plasma membrane
- Proteins are synthesized into the RER
3
channels (cisternal space) 8
 Endomembrane System
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
(SER)
• Relatively few associated ribosomes
• Functions:
- Synthesis of membrane lipids
- Calcium storage
- Detoxification of foreign substances

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Endomembrane System

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 Endomembrane System
Golgi Apparatus
• Flattened stacks of interconnected
membranes folds (cisternae) known
individually as Golgi bodies

• Located peripheral to the nucleus and ER

• Function in packaging and distribution of
materials to different parts of the cell

• Synthesis of cell wall components

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Fig. 4.12
• Cis face of
Golgi faces
and receives
products from
the ER
• Trans face of
Golgi releases
secretory
vesicles

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 Endomembrane System
Lysosomes
• Membrane bound vesicles containing
digestive enzymes to break down
macromolecules

• Packaged and secreted by Golgi

apparatus

• Function to destroy cells or foreign matter

that the cell has engulfed by phagocytosis
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4
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 Endomembrane System
Microbodies
• Membrane bound vesicles that do not
originate from the endomembrane system

• Contain enzymes:
- Glyoxysomes in plants contain enzymes for
converting fats to carbohydrates

- Peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes

such as H2O2 and catalase
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Fig. 4.15
 Endomembrane System
Vacuoles
• ‘Blank spaces’
• Membrane-bound structures with a variety
of functions depending on the cell type
• There are different types of vacuoles:
- Central Vacuole in plant cells
- Contractile Vacuole of some protists
- Storage Vacuoles
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Fig. 4.16
 Mitochondria
Mitochondria
• ‘Power house of the cell”
• Present in all types of eukaryotic cells
• Contain oxidative metabolism
enzymes for the chemical reactions of
cellular respiration
-the transferring of energy within
macromolecules to ATP
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 Mitochondria Structure
• Surrounded by 2 membranes:
1. Smooth outer membrane
2. Folded inner membrane with layers (cristae)
- intermembrane space is located between the
two membranes
- matrix within the inner membrane

1. Similar in structure and function to

chloroplasts of photosynthesis

2. Contain their own DNA (Mitochondrial DNA)

- Produce some essential proteins
- Mitochondria undergo their own division 51
Mitochondria

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2
 Chloroplasts
• Organelles present in cells of plants and
some other eukaryotes (Kingdom Protista)

• Contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis

• Surrounded by 2 membranes
- Inner membrane forms sacs known as
thylakoids
- Stacks of thylakoids are known as Grana
• Mitochondria, chloroplasts and similar DNA
containing organelles known collectively as
plastids 5
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Chloroplasts

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 Mitochondria & Chloroplasts
Endosymbiosis
• Proposal that eukaryotic organelles
evolved through a symbiotic relationship

• One prokaryotic cell engulfed a second

prokaryotic cell and a symbiotic
relationship developed

• Mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought

to have evolved this way
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 Mitochondria & Chloroplasts
• Evidence supports this endosymbiosis
theory:
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts:
– have 2 membranes
– possess DNA and ribosomes
– are about the size of a prokaryotic cell
– divide by process of simple fission similar to
bacteria

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Mitochondria & Chloroplasts

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 Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton

• Network of protein fibers found in all

eukaryotic cells

• Supports the shape of the cell

• Keeps organelles in fixed locations
• Helps move materials within the cell
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 Cytoskeleton
• Three Fiber Types of Cytoskeleton:
1. Actin Filaments – responsible for cellular
contractions, crawling, “pinching”
- Composed of actin protein subunits
2. Microtubules – provide organization to the
cell and move materials within the cell
- Composed of tubulin protein subunits
3. Intermediate Filaments – provide
structural stability
- Composed of vimentin protein subunits 59
Cytoskeleton

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Fig. 4.20a
 Cytoskeleton
Centrosomes
• Organelles that organize microtubule
function within the cell
- Cell division
• Composed of two perpendicular
centrioles
- bundles of microtubules organized in 9 triplets

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2
Fig. 4.21
 Cell Movement
• Cell movement takes different forms:
• Crawling is accomplished via actin
filaments and the protein myosin

• Molecular motor proteins such as kinesin

and dyein use ATP energy to move organelles
in the cytoplasm along microtubule tracks

• Flagella undulate to move a cell

• Cilia can be arranged in rows on the surface
of a eukaryotic cell to propel a cell forward6
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Fig. 4.22
 Cell Movement
• The cilia and flagella of eukaryotic cells
have a similar structure:
• 9-2 structure: 9 pairs of microtubules
surrounded by a 2 central microtubules
• dynein protein motors slide the microtubules
across each other causing them to undulate

• Flagella attached to cell body at basal

body

• Cilia are usually more numerous than

flagella on a cell 6
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Cell Movement

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Fig. 4.24b
Fig. 4.24a
 Extracellular Structures
• Extracellular structures:
• Cell Walls:
• plants
• fungi
• some protists
• Extracellular Matrix
• surrounding animal cells
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 Extracellular Structures
Cell Walls
• Present surrounding the cells of plants,
fungi, and some protists

• Composed of carbohydrates
-Type of carbohydrate present in the cell wall
vary depending on the cell type:
- plant and protist cell walls composed of cellulose
- fungal cell walls composed of chitin
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Fig. 4.25
 Extracellular Structures
Extracellular matrix (ECM)
• Surrounds animal cells
- animal cells lack cell walls
• Composed of glycoproteins and fibrous
proteins such as collagen and elastin
- provide a protective layer over the cell
• Connected to plasma membrane via
fibronectins

• Connected to the cytoplasm via integrin

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proteins present in the plasma membrane
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Extracellular Structures

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