Chapter 8

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 Introduction
In Chapter 7 we obtained a non-dimensional form for the heat
transfer coefficient, applicable for problems involving external flow:
 Fluid properties were evaluated at surface temperature Ts, bulk
temperature of the fluid T∞, or film temperature Tf.

• In this chapter we will obtain convection coefficients for

geometries involving internal flow, such as flow in tubes
"
 Recall Newton’s law of cooling: qs  h(Ts  T )
 For flow inside a tube we cannot define T
 Must know how temperature evolves inside the pipe and find
alternative expressions for calculating heat flux due to
convection.

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Flow Conditions for Internal Flow

du / dx  0
um D
• Onset of turbulent flow at Re D   2300

• Hydrodynamic entry length:
– Laminar flow x fd ,h / D  0.05 Re D

x fd ,h / D  10
– Turbulent flow
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 Mean Velocity
• Velocity inside a tube varies over the cross section. For every
differential area dAc

dm  u ( r, x )dAc 
 m  dm  u( r, x )dAc
A A
• Overall rate of mass transfer through a tube with cross section Ac:
m
m  um Ac and um  where um is the mean (average)
Ac velocity

 u( r, x )dAc
2 ro

Ac
um   2 u( r, x ) rdr
Ac ro 0

 To determine average temperature at any axial location

(along the x-direction), from knowledge of the velocity profile
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 Velocity Profile in a pipe
• For laminar flow of an incompressible, constant property fluid in
the fully developed region of a circular tube (pipe):

Balance of surface force on ring fluid element

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 Pada y = r-ro hukum Viskositas Newton

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Pressure Gradient & Friction Factor in Fully Developed Flow
Dimensionless parameter  Moody (Darcy) friction factor

Diagram
Moody
Fanning friction factor / Friction Coefficient
Since  Cf = f/4

Colebrook equation

Petukhov

Power of pump/fan
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Thermal Considerations: Mean Temperature
• Newton’s law of cooling inside a tube,
q"x  h(TS  Tm )
 a mean temperature, instead of T

• Internal energy/mass for a differential area dE  dm cT ( r, x )  (udAc )cT ( r, x )



• Overall rate of energy transfer :

A A  
• Integrating over the entire cross section: E  dE  ucT ( r, x )dAc

E  m cTm
E  ucT ( r, x )dAc
2 ro

Ac
Tm  Tm   uT ( r, x ) rdr
m c m c um ro2 0

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Fully Developed Conditions

? Can we claim that dT ( r )  0 ?

dx

• For internal flows, the temperature, T(r), as well as the mean

temperature, Tm always vary in the x-direction, ie.

dT ( r ) dTm
 0, 0
dx dx
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 Fully Developed Conditions
• Although T(r) changes with x, the relative shape of the temperature
profile remains the same: Flow is thermally fully developed.

  Ts ( x )  T ( r, x ) 
  0
x  Ts ( x )  Tm ( x )  fd ,t

• A fully developed thermally region is possible, if one of two possible

surface conditions exist :
– Uniform temperature (Ts=constant)
– Uniform heat flux (qx”=const)
• Thermal Entry Length :
( x fd ,t / D ) lam  0.05 Re D Pr
( x fd ,t / D ) turb  10
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 For fully developed flow
hlokal constant

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Mean temperature variation along a tube
We are still left with the problem of knowing how the mean
temperature Tm(x), varies as a function of distance, so that we can use
it in Newton’s law of cooling to estimate convection heat transfer.
 Consider an energy balance on a differential control volume inside the
tube:
– Main contributions are due to internal energy [cvTm] changes,
convection heat transfer and flow work [p] to move the fluid.
P=surface perimeter

The rate of convection heat transfer

to the fluid is equal to the rate at
which the fluid thermal energy
increases, plus the net rate at which
is work is done in moving the fluid
through the control volume

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Considering perfect gas, or incompressible liquid: dqconv  m
 c p dTm
By integrating: qconv  m c p (Tm,o  Tm,i )
dTm q "s P P where P=surface perimeter =D
  h(Ts  Tm )
dx m c p m c p for circular tube,

Constant Surface Heat Flux

Constant Surface Temperature

Ts  Tm,o To  PL 
  exp  h
Ts  Tm,i Ti  m c p 
 

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 Example
A flat-plate solar collector is used to heat atmospheric air flowing through a
rectangular channel. The bottom surface of the channel is well insulated,
while the top surface is subjected to a uniform heat flux, which is due to the
net effect of solar radiation absorption and heat exchange between the
absorber and cover plates.
For inlet conditions of mass flow rate=0.1 kg/s and Tm,i=40°C, what is the
air outlet temperature, if L=3 m, w=1 m and the heat flux is 700 W/m2? The
specific heat of air is cp=1008 J/kg.K

Ans: Tm,o=60.8°C
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Uniform External Temperature

 Replace Ts by T and h by U (the overall heat transfer coefficient,

which includes contributions due to convection at the tube inner and
outer surfaces, and due to conduction across the tube wall)

To T  Tm,o  U As 
  exp 
 m c p


q  U As Tlm
Ti T  Tm,i  
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 Example
Steam condensing on the outer surface of a thin-walled circular tube
of 50 mm diameter and 6-m length maintains a uniform surface
temperature of 100°C. Water flows through the tube at a mass flow
rate of 0.25 kg/s and its inlet and outlet temperatures are Tm,1=15°C
and Tm,o=57°C. What is the average convection coefficient associated
with the water flow?

Ts=100°C

D=50 mm
Tm,i=15°C
Tm,o=57°C

L=6 m

Ans. h  756W / m 2 K
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 Summary
• We discussed fully developed flow conditions for cases involving
internal flows, and we defined mean velocities and temperatures
• We wrote Newton’s law of cooling using the mean temperature,
instead of T "
q  h(TS  Tm )
• Based on an overall energy balance, we obtained an alternative
expression to calculate convection heat transfer as a function of mean
temperatures at inlet and outlet.
qconv  m c p (Tm,o  Tm,i )

• We obtained relations to express the variation of Tm with length, for

cases involving constant heat flux and constant wall temperature
q s" P Ts  Tm,o To  PL 
Tm ( x)  Tm,i  x   exp  h
m c p Ts  Tm,i Ti  m c p 
 
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 Summary
• We used these definitions, to obtain appropriate versions of Newton’s
law of cooling, for internal flows, for cases involving constant wall
temperature and constant surrounding fluid temperature

qconv  h As Tlm q  U As Tlm

To  Ti
Tlm 
ln(To / Ti )

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Heat Transfer Correlations for Internal Flow
Knowledge of heat transfer coefficient is needed for calculations
shown in previous slides.
 Correlations exist for various problems involving internal flow,
including laminar and turbulent flow in circular and non-circular
tubes and in annular flow.
 For laminar flow we can derive h dependence theoretically
 For turbulent flow we use empirical correlations
 Recall from Chapters 6 and 7 general functional dependence

Nu  f (Re, Pr)

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Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
1. Fully Developed Region
incompressible, constant properties

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 Example
For flow of a liquid metal through a circular tube, the velocity and
temperature profiles at a particular axial location may be approximated
as being uniform and parabolic respectively. That is, u(r)=C1 and
T(r) -Ts=C2[1-(r/ro)2], where C1 and C2 are constants and Ts the
temperature at the surface of the tube. What is the value of the Nusselt
number, NuD at this location?

u( r )  C1 ro

T ( r )  Ts  C2 [1  ( r / ro ) 2 ]
Ans. NuD=8
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Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
2. Entry Region: Velocity and Temperature are functions of x
• Thermal entry length
problem: Assumes the
presence of fully
developed velocity profile

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 Hausen Correlation

Baehr and Stephan

Correlation

Fluid properties correction by Kays

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Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
• For a smooth surface and fully turbulent conditions the Dittus – Boelter
equation may be used for small to moderate temperature differences Ts-Tm:
0.7  Pr  160
n=0.4 for heating (Ts>Tm)
NuD  0.023 Re 4D/ 5 Pr n Re D  10,000
L / D  10 n=0.3 for cooling (Ts<Tm)

• For large property variations, Sieder and Tate equation:

0.14 0.7  Pr  16,700
4/5 1/ 3   
Nu D  0.027 Re D Pr   Re D  10,000
 s  L / D  10

All properties, except s evaluated at average value of mean temperature

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Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
• For smaller Reynolds numbers, Gnielinski correlation:
( f / 8)(Re D  1000) Pr 0.5  Pr  2000
Nu D 
1  12.7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3  1) 3000  Re D  5  106

• For short tube

• For liquid metal

Skupinski Correlation

[PeD  100]
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 Example
Water at a flow rate of 0.215 kg/s is cooled from 70°C to 30°C by passing
it through a thin-walled tube of diameter D=50 mm and maintaining a
coolant at 15°C in cross flow over the tube.
(a) What is the required tube length if the coolant is air and its velocity is
V=20 m/s?
(b) What is the required tube length if the coolant is water is V=2 m/s?

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 Non-Circular tubes
4 Ac
Use the concept of the hydraulic diameter: Dh 
where Ac is the flow cross-sectional P
area and P the wetted perimeter

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 Compute the length
of the tubing
required to achieve
the desired outlet
condition. Assume
the properties of the
blood are the same
of those of water
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 Heat Transfer
Enhancement

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• Secondary flow friction losses dan laju perpan
entrance length dan selisih hturb dan hlam
• Coil pitch S berpengaruh kecil pada p dan q
Critical Reynolds Number
 For laminar fully developed flow C/D  3.0

 Effect of secondary flow in regime of turbulent is less significant

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 Semua ko267 untuk perpan berlaku juga pada perpindahan
massa dengan pengubahan yang bersesuaian (misal : Pr  Sc)
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 Summary
• Numerous correlations exist for the estimation of the heat transfer
coefficient, for various flow situations involving laminar and turbulent
flow.
• Always make sure that conditions for which correlations are valid are
applicable to your problem.
 Summary of correlations in Table 8.4 of textbook

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 Xie xie
nie
Kamsa
Hamnid
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