Mathematical methods in the physical sciences 3rd edition Mary L.

Boas

Infinite series, Power series

Lecture 1 Deret tak hingga , konvergensi

1
1. Seri geometris
- Deret geometris
a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,, ar n 1 ,
2,4,8,16,,2 2 
n 1
 2 n ,,  r  2 1
n 1 n 1
2 4 8 2 2 2
1, , , ,,1      ,  ,0 r 1
3 9 27 3 3 3

- Series : an indicated sum of a given sequence.

cf. Infinite series, Geometric series

2  4  8  16    2 2 
n 1

n 1
2 4 8 2
1      
3 9 27 3

2
- Summation of the geometric series, S_n

Geometric sequence : an  ar n 1
S n  a  ar  ar 2  ar 3    ar n 1
rS n  ar  ar 2  ar 3    ar n 1  ar n
S n  rS n  a  ar n
a 1  r n 
 (1  r ) S n  a 1  r   S n 
n

1 r

- Summation of the infinite geometric series

For r  1, lim S n  S 
n 
a
1 r

lim r n  0
n 
 " convergent"

For r  1, " divergent or oscillating"

3
Contoh) jarak pantul bola memantul

v1  evo
v2  e 2vo
v3  e3vo
vn  e n vo

vo v4  e 4vo


vn  evn 1 , e 2  1 
2 2
1 2 vn e 2 vn 1
mghn  mvn  hn    e 2 hn 1
2 2g 2g

v02 (ev0 ) 2 1 v02 e 2 v02 1
htotal  h0  2 hn  2  
n 1 2g 2g 1 e 2
2g g 1  e2

4
3. Application of series

- It is possible for the sum of an infinite series to be nearly the same as the sum
of a fairly small number of terms at the beginning of the series. Many applied
problems can not be solved exactly, but we may be able to find an answer in
terms of an infinite series, and then use only as many terms as necessary to
obtain the needed accuracy.

x 2 x3
ex. e  1  x 
x
    e x  1  x for x  1
2! 3!

- There is more to the subject of infinite series than making approximations.

We will see how we can use power series (that is, series whose terms are
powers of x) to give meaning to functions of complex numbers.

- Other infinite series: Fourier series (sines and cosines), Legendre series,
Bessel series, and so on.

5
4. Convergent and divergent series

lim S n  S (finite number).

n

a. If the partial sum S_n of an infinite series tend to a limit S, the series is
called convergent. Otherwise, it is called divergent.

b. The limiting value S is called the sum of the series.

c. The difference R_n=S-S_n is called the remainder (or the remainder after n
terms).
lim Rn  lim  S  S n   S  S  0, if the series is convergent.
n n

cf. Convergent and Divergent series (Summation)

a  ar  ar 2  ar 3    ar n 1  ar n  
to get summation when converged to check if it converges or diverges

6
5. Testing series for convergence; the preliminary test

- Preliminary test (divergence condition)

a. If the terms of an infinite series do not tend to zero, the series diverges.
b. If they do, we must test further.

lim an  0,
n
a n diverges.

1 2 3 4
ex.    
2 3 4 5

7
6. Convergence tests for series of positive terms; absolute convergence

If some of the terms of a series are negative, we may still want to consider the
related series which we get by making all the terms positive; that is, we may
consider the series whose terms are the absolute values of the terms of our
original series.

If the new series converges, we call the original series absolutely convergent.
It can be proved that if a series converges absolutely, then, it converges.

8
A. The comparison test

1) smaller than the convergent series

m1  m2  m3   : convergent
a1  a2  a3   should be absolutely convergent, if an  mn .

2) larger than the divergent series

d1  d 2  d3   : divergent
a1  a2  a3   should diverges, if an  d n .

9
B. The integral test
0  an 1  an

a

a. If  an dn is finite, n converges.

a

b. If  an dn is infinite, n diverges.

1 1 1  1 
Example. 1     .
2 3 4  n
dn  ln n  .

10
C. The ratio test
: in cases that we cannot evaluate the integral.

an 1
n  ,   lim  n .
an n

A a series with   1 converges.

A a series with   1 diverges.
If   1, the ratio test does not tell us anything.

1 1 1
Example 1   
2! 3! n!
1 1 1 1
n    ,   lim  n  lim 0
 n  1! n! n  1 n n n  1

So, the above series should be convergent.

11
D. A special comparison test (may skip this.)

  n 1 bn : convergent series of positive terms, an  0,



and an / bn  a finite limit

  n 1 an converges.


  n 1 d n : divergent series of positive terms, an  0,



and an / bn  a limit greater than 0 (or )

  n 1 an diverges.


12
7. Alternating series
- Alternating series: a series whose terms are alternatively plus and minus.
- Test for alternating series: An alternating series converges if the absolute value
of the terms decreases steadily to zero.
an 1  an , lim n   an  0

Example.
1 1 1
1   
  1 n 1
  : converges,
2 3 4 n
1 1 1
  , lim  0
n  1 n n n

13
8. Conditionally convergent series
- A series converges, but does not converge absolutely. In this case, it is a
conditionally convergent series.

9. Useful facts about series

1. The convergence or divergence of a series is not affected by multiplying
every term of the series by the same nonzero constant. Neither is it affected by
changing a finite number of terms (for example, omitting the first few terms.)

2. Two convergent series may be added (or substracted) term by term. The
resulting series is convergent, and its sum is obtained by adding the sums of
the two given series.

3. The terms of an absolutely convergent series may be rearranged in any order

without affecting either the convergence or the sum.

14
Mathematical methods in the physical sciences 3rd edition Mary L. Boas

Chapter 1 Infinite series, Power series

Lecture 2 Power series (Taylor expansion)

10. Power series


 n
a
n0
x n
 a0  a1 x  a 2 x 2
 a3 x 3



or  an  x  a   a0  a1  x  a  x  a2  x  a   a3  x  a   
n 0
n 2 3


S  x    an x n for convergent an x n
n 0

cf. interval of convergence

11. Theorems about power series
Theorem 1. A power series may be differentiated or integrated term by term; the
resulting series converges to the derivative or integral of the function represented
by the original series within the same interval of convergence as the original
series.

Theorem 2. Two power series may be added, subtracted, or multiplied; the

resolution series converges at least in the common interval of convergence.

Theorem 3. One series may be substituted in another provided that the values of
the substituted series are in the interval of convergence of the other series.

Theorem 4. The power series of a function is unique, that is, there is just one
power series which converges to a given function.
12. Expanding function in Power series
(using the differentiation…)

First set like this.

sin x  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3  a4 x 4    an x n  
i) At x  0, sin x  0  a0  0

ii) First derivative

cos x  a1  2a2 x  3a3 x 2  4a4 x 3  , at x  0, a1  1

iii) Second derivative

0
 sin x  2a2  2  3a3 x  3  4a4 x 2   , at x  0, a2  0
1 2
iv) Third derivative
1 1
 cos x  2  3a3  2  3  4a4 x   , at x  0, a3  
1  2  3 3!

In this way, we can determine the coefficients of the power series.

x3 x5 x7
sin x  x     
3! 5! 7!

x2 x4 x6
cf. cos x  1     
2! 4! 6!
(Maclaurin series : Talyor series about the origin)
- General Talyor series for f(x)
f  x   a0  a1  x  a   a2  x  a   a3  x  a   a4  x  a     an  x  a   
2 3 4 n

f  x   a1  2a2  x  a   3a3  x  a     nan  x  a 

2 n 1

f  x   2a2  2  3a3  x  a      n  1 n x  a 
n2

f  3   x   2  3a3     n  2  n  1 n x  a 
n 3

f  n   x   1  2  3 n  2 n  1 nan  terms containing powers of  x  a 

For x  a,
f  a   a0 , f  a   a1 , f  a   2a2  2!a2 , f  3   a   2  3a3  3!a3 , f  n   a   n!an
 f  x  f  a
1
  x  a  f  a    x  a  2 f  a   1  x  a  3 f  3  a     1  x  a  n f  n   a   
2! 3! n!
x2 x3  3 xn  n
For x  0, f  x   f  0   xf  0  f  0   f  0    f  0  
2! 3! n!
13. Techniques for obtaining power series expansions

There are often simpler ways for finding the power series of a function than
the successive differentiation process in Section 12. Theorem 4 in Section 11
tells us that for a given function there is just one power series. Therefore we can
obtain it by any correct method and be sure that it is the same Maclaurin series
we would get by using the method of Section 12. We shall illustrate a variety of
methods for obtaining power series.
First, please memorize these basic series for your timesaving.

sin x  

  1 n x 2 n1  x  x 3  x 5  x 7  
n 0 (2n  1)! 3! 5! 7!

cos x  

  1 n x 2 n x2 x4 x6
 1   
n 0 (2n)! 2! 4! 6!

xn x 2 x3 x 4
e    1 x    
x

n  0 n! 2! 3! 4!

ln 1  x   

  1 n1 x n x 2 x3 x 4
 x     1  x  1
n 0 n 2 3 4
 p

p  p  1 2 p  p  1 p  2 3
1  x  p
    x n  1  px  x  x  x 1
n 0  n  2! 3!
A. Multiplication
 x3 x5 
Ex.1  x  1 sin x   x  1  x    
 3! 5! 
x3 x 4
 x  x   
2

3! 3!

 x 2 x3 x 4  x 2 x 4 
Ex. 2 e cos x  1  x 
x
   1    
 2! 3! 4!  2! 4! 
x3 x 4
1 x   
3 6

 
cf. eix  cos x  i sin x, Re eix  cos x

e x cos x  Re e x eix   Ree  
1 i x
B. Division

1 1 x 2 x3 x 4  1    1 n 1 x n 
  1 x n 1
n 1
Ex.1 ln1  x    x        
x x 2 3 4  x n0 n n0 n
x x 2 x3
1   
2 3 4

1  x  x 2  x3  
1
Ex.2 1 x 1
1 x
1 x
x
 x  x2
x2
x 2  x3
 x3
Ex. 3 x3 2 5
x   x 
3! 15
sin x x2 x4 x3 x5
tan x  1  x   
cos x 2! 4! 3! 5!
C. Binomial Series

 p  p  p  p p  1
   1,    p,  
0  1  2  2!
     
 p  p p  1 p  2   p  n  1
 
n  n!
 

ex. .1
1
 1  x   1  x 
1   1  2 x 2    1  2  3 x3  
1 x 2! 3!
 1  x  x 2  x3  
D. Substitution of a polynomial or a Series for the variable in another series

ex. 1 x2 X2 X3 X4
e  e 1 X 
X
  
2! 3! 4!

 1   x2  
x   x   x 
2 2 2 3 2 4

2! 3! 4!
x 4 x 6 x8
1 x  2
  
2! 3! 4!
ex.2
X2 X3 X4
e tan x
 e 1 X 
X
  
2! 3! 4!
2 3
 x3 2 5   x3 2 5 

 x   x   
 
 x   x   
 x 3
2 5   3 15   3 15  
 
 1   x   x    
 3 15  2! 3!
x 2 x3 3 4
1 x    x 
2 2 8
E. Combination of methods
ex. How to expand arctan x in a Taylor series
x dt
0 1  t 2
t
 arctan t 0
 arctan x.

1  t 
2 1
 1  t2  t4  t6  
x dt x
  x3 x5 x7
0 1  t 2  0 1  t  t  t   dt  x  3  5  7  
2 4 6

x3 x5 x7
arctan x  x     .
3 5 7
F. Using the basic Maclaurin series (x=0)

1
ex. 1 ln x  ln1   x  1    x  1   x  1 2  1  x  1 3  1  x  1 4  
2 3 4

 3  3   3 
ex. 2 cos x  cos    x    sin  x  
 2  2   2 
3 5
 3  1 3  1  3 
x    x     x    .
 2  3!  2  5!  2 
G. Using a computer

x3 x 4 x5
e cos x  1  x   
x

3 6 30
x3 x3 x 4 x3 x 4 x5
S1  1  x, S3  1  x  , S 4  1  x   , S5  1  x   
3 3 6 3 6 30
 Original
40 S1
S3
S4
20 S5

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-20

-40
Mathematical methods in the physical sciences 3rd edition Mary L. Boas

Chapter 1 Infinite series, Power series

Lecture 3 Application of Power series

32
15. Some uses of series
1) Numerical computation
: With computers and calculators so available, you may wonder why we would
ever want to use series for numerical computation. Here is an example to warn
you of the pitfalls of blind computation.

ex.1 1 x
ln  tan x
1 x x  0.0015

 x3 x5 x7   x 3 2 5 17 7 
  x        x   x  x  
 3 5 7   3 15 315 

x5 4 7
  x  ~ 5.06  1016
15 45
x  0.0015

error order, x^7~10^-21

33
ex.2 d4  1 2 d 4  1  2 x 6 x10 
4 
sin x   4   x      
dx  x  x  0.1 dx  x  3! 5! 

34
2) Summing series

1 1 1
1   
2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
 ln1  x   x     
2 3 4 x 1

3) Evaluation of definite integral

ex.
1 1  2 x 6 x10 
0 sin x dx  0  x  3!  5!  dx

2

1 1 1
   
3 7  3! 11  5!
 0.333  0.02381  0.00076  
 0.31028

35
4) Evaluation of indeterminate forms
 x 2 x3 
1  1  x    
1  ex 2! 3!   lim  1  x    1
lim  lim   
x 0 x x 0 x x 0
 2! 

cf. L’Hopital’s rule

f  x f  x 
lim  lim , if f  a   g  a   0, g  a   0.
xa g  x x  a g  x 


ex. lim
1 e x
 lim
1  e x
  lim
 ex
 1.
x 0 x x 0
 x  x 0 1

cf: confer (= compare)

e.g.: exempli gratia (= for example)
i.e.: id est (= that is)

36
proof)
f  x f  0  f  0 x  1 2! f  0  x 2  1 3! f  0 x 3  
lim  lim
x 0 g  x  x  0 g  0   g  0  x  1 2! g  0  x 2  1 3! g  0  x 3  

f  0  x  1 2! f  0 x 2  1 3! f  0 x 3  
 lim
x  0 g  0  x  1 2! g  0  x 2  1 3! g  0  x 3  

f  0   1 2! f  0 x  1 3! f  0 x 2   f  0 f  x 
 lim   lim
x  0 g  0   1 2! g  0  x  1 3! g  0  x 2   g  0  x  0 g  x 

37
5) Series approximation
ex.1 Equation of motion of a simple pendulum

F   kx

F  kx (storing force)

d2
F  ma  m 2  mx
dt
 kx  mx
x  A sin t   
2
k  2 
 kA sin t      Am 2 sin t      2    
m  T 

38
  l

mg sin  mg cos
mg

F  ma  mx  ml
F  mg sin 

 mg sin   ml
g
  sin  0 ' difficult to solve'
l

g
     0 (sin    for   1) : simple harmonic oscillator
l

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15-28 Special relativity

E  m0c 1  v 2
 2

c2 1
2
cf . m  m0 1  v 2

c2 1
2

1  v c 
2
2
1
2
 1  X 
1 2
1
X 3 2 1 2
 X  1 v 2 
2 4 2 c
 
For v
2

c2
 1, 1  v c  2
2
1
2
1  
1 v2
2 c
2

E  m0c 1  v 2
 2

c2 1
2  1 2 
 1
 m0c 2 1  v 2   m0c 2  m0v 2
 2 c  2

kinetic energy

rest mass energy

40