Chapter:6

Biological fuel generation

:submitted by
Pharmaceutics
pHd students

The supervisor
Prof
Dr. Ammar
The topics:

Photosynthesis: the ultimate energy resource 6.1

.Sources of biomass 6.2

6.3 Ethanol from biomass

.Methane from biomass 6.4

.Hydrogen 6.5

Postscript: microbial recovery of petroleum 6.6

:Photosynthesis: the ultimate energy resource 6.1

There are three main fossil fuels,namely coal, natural gas and oil.
Approximately 93% of fossil fuel consumed throughout the world is
for energy production, with only 7% being used by industry for the
production of solvents, plastics and a host of other organic
.chemicals

The continual depletion of global fossil-fuel energy has generated

an everincreasing need to seek out alternative sources of energy.
:These have so far included
;the harnessing of hydro-, tidal, wave and wind power )1(
the capture of solar and geothermal energy supplies; and )2(
.nuclear power )3(
 There is now a growing appreciation of biological energy systems
and that biotechnological advances in this area may soon bring
economic reality to selected processes. Biomass such as forest,
agricultural and animal residues, and industrial and domestic organic
wastes, can now be converted by physicochemical and/or
.fermentation processes to clean fuels and petrochemical substitutes

 Photosynthetically derived material is not generally in a

sufficiently dry state to possess an attractive calorific value, nor in a
.form that is best suited to modern technology

 Photosynthetic organisms, both terrestrial and marine, can be

considered as continuous solar energy converters and are constantly
.renewable
 photosynthetically derived biomass that exists in many available
forms in the environment could well be transformed into storable
.fuels and chemical feedstocks, such as alcohols and methane gas

 Biomass can be considered as a renewable energy source, and can

be converted into either direct energy or energy-carrier compounds
by direct combustion, anaerobic digestion systems, destructive
distillation, gasification, chemical hydrolysis and biochemical
hydrolysis
:Sources of biomass 6.2

There are three main directions that can be followed to achieve biomass supplies
:(Fig. 6.1)

’cultivation of so-called ‘energy crops )1(

harvesting of natural vegetation )2(
.utilisation of agricultural and other organic wastes )3(
:Ethanol from biomass 6.3

 The production of alcohol by fermentation of sugars and starch is

an ancient art and is often considered to be one of the first microbial
.processes used by man

 At present, industrial alcohol production is largely synthetic, i.e.

.non-microbial, deriving from petrochemical processes
Petrochemical ethanol is made by the hydration of ethylene, and the
decline of microbial production of alcohol dates from the large-scale
.production of ethylene from the 1940s
Thus, in technologically more advanced countries, ethanol is
.produced by chemical means

In many developing countries where cheap raw materials are

available, ethanol is still produced for industrial purposes using
.traditional fermentation techniques

. While the benefits of ethanol as a fuel are considerable, i.e

,it is energy efficient √
does not produce toxic carbon monoxide during combustion and √
,is, therefore, much less polluting than conventional fuels
it is still cheaper to produce ethanol from oil chemically than by √
.fermentation processes at current oil prices
 However, the current economic scenario for Brazil’s gasohol
programme is being severely influenced by the current slump in
world oil prices. By 1985, ethanol production had increased to
million litres, and by 1988, 88% of new cars were powered 900 11
.by ethanol engines

 Nevertheless, there are many indirect advantages to Brazil in using

ethanol instead of gasoline. While there are obvious reductions in
their contributions to global warming, the addition of anhydrous
ethanol to gasoline eliminates the need for tetra-ethyl lead to raise
.the octane rating
 Studies have further shown that ethanol-powered engines produce
57% less carbon monoxide, 64% less hydrocarbons and13%less
nitric oxides than gasoline-powered vehicles. Thus, while
international oil prices continue to be low, the main justification for
.the continuation of bioethanol programmes must be environmental
 The world price of alcohol is still about twice that of oil, and fuel
.consumption is also up to 20% heavier with alcohol
 To make available the necessary fermentable sugars, most raw
materials require some degree of pre-treatment, depending on their
.chemical composition

 With sugar cane, this treatment is minimal and consists mainly of

the usual milling operation, whereas

 cassava roots (containing 25–38% starch on a wet-weight basis)

require the action of a suitable saccharifying agent – either acid
.hydrolysis or enzyme hydrolysis

 Cellulosic raw materials such as timber and straw require more

extensive pre-treatment, and this is reflected in the increased energy
inputs required
So far, innovation in the Brazilian programme has been
restricted to some marginal improvements in essentially traditional
.alcohol fermentation processes

However, biotechnology is having a considerable input with

new developments and numerous research programmes in this field,
.e.g
production of more efficient microorganisms by genetic √
engineering (improved alcohol fermentation, resistance to high
temperatures and high alcohol levels, speed of fermentation and
,higher yields)
by improved immobilised enzyme reactor technology, and √√
.by process design improvements √√√
Novel introductions such as fermentation under partial
vacuum and recycling of the fermentative yeast cells have increased
ethanol productivity to 10 or 12 times that of conventional batch
fermentation processes, and such increases reduce capital costs and
.energy requirements for fermenter operation

Application of these biotechnological improvements to

ethanol production will make these processes increasingly
.economically attractive as a substitute for fossil fuel
Vast volumes of wastes or stillage result from the Brazilian
and other alcohol programmes, and much research is in progress to
:seek worthwhile end products. Of particular significance will be

;evaporation to feed or fertilisers )1(

;mineralisation to ash )2(
;anaerobic fermentation for methanol generation )3(
.conversion by microorganisms into SCP )4(
Recently there has been a growing interest in some parts of
Europe in the use of modified rapeseed oil as a diesel substitute –
biodiesel. Biodiesel is obtained from rapeseed as the result of a
reaction between the oil and methanol in the presence of a catalyst
.such as sodium hydroxide at 50◦C, producing an ester and glycerol

The glycerol is allowed to settle and the biodiesel purified and used
as a fuel. The purified biodiesel has physical and chemical properties
that are similar to those of diesel fuel and heating fuel oil. The use of
.biodiesel does not require any specific engine modifications
?What are the main advantages of biodiesel

Firstly, the energy yielded is considerably greater than that

consumed during its production and will increase with improved
.(genetically engineered) cultivars of rapeseed

Secondly, it is non-toxic and more than 98% biodegradable, and its

contribution to the greenhouse effect is three to five times less than
.that of diesel. Above all, it is renewable
:Methane from biomass 6.4
Methane gas can be used for the generation of mechanical, electrical and
heat energy, and is now extensively used as a fuel source for domestic and
industrial purposes through national gas pipelines or can be converted to methanol
and used as fuel in internal combustion engines. Such natural gas sources were
.originally derived from biomass in ancient times

Methane gas also exists in the atmosphere and is mainly derived from
microbial action in natural wetlands, rice paddies and enteric fermentation in
animals, contributing about 20%, 20% and 15% respectively to the total
.methane flux

Domestic cattle are the major contributors, producing about 75% of all
animal emissions, whereas humans produce about 0.4%. After carbon dioxide,
methane is considered to be the next most important greenhouse gas and is
.expected to contribute 18% of future warming
There are several possible ways by which methane can be produced in a
:planned economy
,from sewage
from agricultural and urban wastes, and
.In biogas reactors

 The anaerobic digestion of sewage is a long-practised technique and many

municipal systems have devised methods of capturing the methane and harnessing
the energy for the needs of the sewage plant. The energy returns are
.modest and large-scale expansion does not seem probable
In recent years, methanogenesis of the abundantly available
agricultural and urban wastes. Using urban wastes it should be
possible to convert 30–50% of the combustible energy to methane,
while with the use of certain other vegetable materials or forages it
.may be possible to achieve 70% conversion

The overall economics of methane production must recognise the

valuable by-products generated by the process, namely the effluent
and residue rich in ammonia, phosphates and microbial cells, which
.may be used as fertiliser, soil conditioner or even as animal feed

Furthermore,the process can convert malodorous and pathogenic

.wastes into innocuous and useful materials
When methane is produced by the fermentation of animal
dung, the gaseous products are usually referred to as ‘biogas’ and
.’the installations as ‘biogas plants’ or ‘bioreactors

Biogas is aflammable mixture of 50–80% methane, 15–45% carbon

.dioxide, 5% water and some trace gases
Methane as an energy source may well have economic value
at local smallscale production levels, but there is considerable doubt
about the future of large-scale commercial processes for methane
.production
.Some of the more obvious considerations are shown in Table 6.3
:Hydrogen 6.5
Consideration has been given to the use of hydrogen as a fuel
or in fuel cells for the production of electricity. Hydrogen production
can occur by way of photosynthetic bacteria, by biophotolysis of
.water and by fermentation

Although it is possible to generate hydrogen from glucose by

bacterial action, the production rate is too small to make microbial
.genesis of hydrogen economic

The efficiency of hydrogen production by anaerobic

fermentation is much less than that of methane production by the
same method. Since methane also has a higher energy content, it
would appear that methane production by microbial processes has a
.much higher practical potential than hydrogen
:Postscript: microbial recovery of petroleum 6.6
When an oil field is opened up, spontaneous and/or pumping
.will produce only about one-third of the total petroleum present

Secondary recovery techniques such as gas pressurising,

water flooding, miscible flooding and thermal methods can further
.increase output

Tertiary oil recovery methods involving the use of solvents,

surfactants and polymers that are able to dislodge oil from
geological formations can further increase or prolong the production
.life of a well (Table 6.4)
Microbially enhanced oil recovery processes involve the
use of polymers such as xanthan gum, produced by large-scale
fermentation of specific bacteria. Such gums have excellent
viscosity and flow characteristics and can pass through small-pore
spaces, releasing more trapped oil. Application is usually associated
.with water-flooding operations

A further possible approach is the use of microorganisms in

situ for dislodging oil by way of surfactant production, gas
formation or even altering the viscosity of the oil by partial
.microbial degradation

Biosurfactants may also have a role in releasing oil from tar

.sands