APPLIED PHYSICS

INSTRUCTOR: AYESHA SIDDIQUE

 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

• Surface on which electric potential has a constant value. Example: point

charge potential

• All points on spherical surface of radius r centered on Q have same V

• Example: ; what is the 100 V equipotential surface?

• So, 100 V equipotential surface is surface of sphere of radius 90 m. For

other values of V, get different radii:
 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

• Any surface over which the potential is constant is called an equipotential

surface.
• In other words, the potential difference between any two points on an
equipotential surface is zero.

• For example, consider two points A and B on an equipotential surface as

shown in figure.
• VB - VA  =  0 
VB  =  VA
 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

• It may be noted that an equipotential surface may be the surface of a material body
or a surface drawn in an electric field.
• Some important properties of equipotential surfaces :.
• Work done in moving a charge over an equipotential surface is zero.
• The electric field is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface.
• The spacing between equipotential surfaces enables us to identify regions of strong
and weak fields.
• Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect. If two equipotential surfaces could
intersect, then at the point of intersection there would be two values of electric
potential which is not possible.
DETERMINING FIELD FROM POTENTIAL
-CONTINUE
DETERMINING FIELD FROM POTENTIAL
-CONTINUE
DETERMINING FIELD FROM POTENTIAL
-CONTINUE
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

• Electric current is defined as the rate at which charge flows through a surface
(the cross section of a wire, for example).
CURRENT = CHARGE / TIME

I = Q/T

• UNITS: AMPS (A)

• AN AMP IS THE FLOW OF 1 C OF CHARGE PER SECOND
• NOTE: 1 C = THE CHARGE OF 6,240,000,000,000,000,000 ELECTRONS
 ELECTRIC CURRENT-CONTINUE

• Free electrons (conducting electrons) are always moving in random motion.

• Usually the number of electrons entering a wire is the same as the number
leaving
• This gives the wire a net charge of zero
DIAGRAM OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
 CONVENTIONAL CURRENT
• BY TRADITION,
DIRECTION IN
WHICH “POSITIVE
CHARGES”
WOULD FLOW.

• DIRECTION IS
OPPOSITE OF
ELECTRON FLOW.
 QUESTION:
WHAT IS REQUIRED IN ORDER TO HAVE AN ELECTRIC
CURRENT FLOW IN A CIRCUIT?

ANSWER:
1. A VOLTAGE SOURCE.
2. THE CIRCUIT MUST BE CLOSED.
 BATTERY (CHEMICAL CELL):
• A DEVICE THAT CONVERTS CHEMICAL ENERGY TO
ELECTRICITY.
• A BATTERY PROVIDES A POTENTIAL ENERGY DIFFERENCE
(VOLTAGE SOURCE).
• DIRECT • ALTERNATING
CURRENT CURRENT
• DC • AC
• PROVIDED BY • PROVIDED BY
BATTERIES POWER
COMPANIES
 AMMETER
• MEASURES ELECTRIC
CURRENT.

• MUST BE PLACED IN
SERIES.
 VOLTAGE SOURCES
• Voltage Source: A device which provides a
potential difference in order to keep current
flowing
• Dry/Wet Cells: Convert chemical energy to
electrical energy
• Generators: Convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy
• The voltage available to electrons moving
between terminals is called electromotive force,

or emf.
VOLTAGE SOURCES

NOTE:

• VOLTAGE FLOWS ACROSS A

CIRCUIT

• CURRENT FLOWS THROUGH

A CIRCUIT
 ELECTRIC RESISTANCE
• ELECTRIC RESISTANCE: THE ABILITY
OF A MATERIAL TO RESIST THE FLOW
OF CHARGE
• UNITS: OHMS (W)
• THE AMOUNT OF CHARGE THAT
FLOWS THROUGH A CIRCUIT
DEPENDS ON TWO THINGS:
• VOLTAGE PROVIDED BY SOURCE
• ELECTRIC RESISTANCE OF THE
CONDUCTOR
RESISTANCE
ELECTRIC RESISTANCE FACTORS
• THICK WIRES HAVE LESS RESISTANCE
THAN THIN WIRES
• SHORT WIRES HAVE LESS RESISTANCE
THAN LONG WIRES
• HIGHER TEMPERATURES USUALLY CAUSE
MORE RESISTANCE
• THE RESISTANCE IN SOME MATERIALS
BECOMES ALMOST ZERO AT VERY
LOW TEMPERATURES
 OHM’S LAW
• THE CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT IS
• DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE VOLTAGE
ACROSS THE CIRCUIT
• INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE
RESISTANCE OF THE CIRCUIT

THEREFORE:
CURRENT = VOLTAGE/RESISTANCE
OR
I = V/R
• THE RATIO OF VOLTAGE AND ELECTRICAL CURRENT IN A CLOSED CIRCUIT:
•  VARIES IN TERMS OF CUBE OF THE RATIO
•  VARIES EXPONENTIALLY
•  VARIES LINEARLY
•  REMAINS CONSTANT
• AN ELECTRIC MOTOR RATED AT 4600 WATT IS CONNECTED TO 240 V SINGLE PHASE , 2 WIRE CIRCUIT WHAT IS
THE CURRENT FLOW IN THE CIRCUIT?
•  7.5 AMPERES
•  12 AMPERES
•  15 AMPERES
•  10 AMPERES

• INCORRECT
• ANSWER: 15 AMPERES
• CURRENT I = P / E
• = 4600 / 240
• = 15 AMPERES
• IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT, WHAT HAPPEN TO THE CURRENT FLOWING
THROUGH THE WIRE IF VOLTAGE IS REDUCED TO THE HALF AND RESISTANCE
OF THE WIRE IS DOUBLED:
•  HALF
•  A QUARTER
•  DOUBLE
•  FOUR TIMES
 VOLTAGE
• Potential difference between
two points
• Either side of a voltage source is
not an eqipotential surface
• A wire is an equipotential surface
• It has the same potential
• If the wire is attached to a voltage
source it is still an equipotential
surface
CURRENT’S DIRECTION
• ELECTRONS TRAVEL FROM – TO +
• CURRENT IS ACTUALLY THE OPPOSITE
DIRECTION OF THE FLOW OF ELECTRONS
Example: 3.8x1021 electrons pass through a point in a wire in 4
minutes. What was the average current?

Q Ne
Iav  
t t

Iav 
 3.8  10 21
 1.6  10 19

 4  60 
Iav  2.53A

29
Current Density

When we study details of charge transport, we use the concept

of current density.

Current density is the amount of charge that flows across a unit

of area in a unit of time.

30

Current density: charge per area per time.

A current density J flowing through an infinitesimal area dA
produces an infinitesimal current dI.

dA

  Current density is a vector. Its

dI  J  dA direction is the direction of the
velocity of positive charge carriers.

The total current passing through A is just

 
I 
surface
J  dA
31

Current density: charge per area per time.

 J

A
If J is constant and parallel to dA (like in a wire), then
  I
I 
surface
J  dA  J 
surface
dA  JA  J 
A

Now let’s take a “microscopic” view of current.

If n is the number of charges

vt per volume, then the number of
v charges that pass through a
q A
surface A in a time t is
number
 volume   n   vt A 
32

volume
The total amount of charge passing through A is the number of
charges times the charge of each.
vt
v Q  nqvt A
q A

Divide by t to get the current…

Q
I  nqv A
t
…and by A to get J:
J  nqv .
33
To account for the vector nature of the current density,
 
J  nqv

and if the charge carriers are electrons, q=-e so that

 
Je  n e v.

The – sign demonstrates that the velocity of the electrons is

antiparallel to the conventional current direction.

34
Currents in Materials

Metals are conductors because they have “free” electrons,

which are not bound to metal atoms.
In a cubic meter of a typical conductor there roughly 1028 free
electrons, moving with typical speeds of 1,000,000 m/s.

But the electrons move in random directions, and there is no 35

net flow of charge, until you apply an electric field...
 E electron “drift” velocity

-
just one inside a
electron conductor
shown, for
simplicity

The voltage accelerates the electron, but only until the

electron collides with a “scattering center.” Then the
electron’s velocity is randomized and the acceleration begins
again.

36
Example: the 12-gauge copper wire in a home has a cross-
sectional area of 3.31x10-6 m2 and carries a current of 10 A.
The conduction electron density in copper is 8.49x1028
electrons/m3. Calculate the drift speed of the electrons.

I
vd 
nqA

I
vd 
neA
10 C/s
vd 
(8.49 1028 m-3 )(1.60 1019 C)(3.31106 m 2 )

vd  2.22 104 m/s 37

Resistivity, what is it?
Resistivity is the opposite of conductivity, it’s a measure of how
effectively a material slows down the flow of electricity.

Insulators have a high resistivity rating. Materials such as metals

and other conductors have a low resistivity rating.
A CONDUCTOR’S RESISTANCE IS DEFINED AS THE RATIO OF
THE APPLIED VOLTAGE TO THE CURRENT PRODUCED.

R = V/I
SCALAR
UNITS: OHM [Ω] =
[V/A]
• RESISTANCE CAN BE CALCULATED FOR ANY OBJECT.
• GOOD CONDUCTOR – LOW RESISTANCE
• POOR CONDUCTOR –HIGH RESISTANCE
• ALL CIRCUIT ELEMENTS HAVE
SOME RESISTANCE.
THE RESISTANCE OF
CONNECTING WIRE LEADS
IS CONSIDERED NEGLIGIBLE.
 RESISTANCE
THE GEOMETRY OF THE RESISTOR MATTERS

L Length
R=ρ
A Area

Resistivity: (units m)

 Increase the Length, flow of electrons impeded

 Increase the cross-sectional Area, flow enhanced
For a wire of length l and cross-sectional area A the
resistance R:

l
Is proportional to l

R
And inversely proportional to A
The constant ρ (rho)
Is known as the resistivity.
A
Increasing the cross-sectional area
increases the number of available electrons.
 RESISTIVITY

Therefore, the units of resistance are:

l
R m
R  m 2   (Ohms )
A m
Resistivity has units of Ohm· meters ( · m)
Resistivity and temperature.
The resistance and resistivity changes with temperature,
therefore resistivity at quoted at a specific temperature

The resistance is proportional to the length l and inversely

proportional to the cross-sectional area A, the material the
conductor is made from, and the temperature.
TWO WIRES, A AND B, ARE MADE OF THE SAME METAL AND HAVE
EQUAL LENGTH, BUT THE RESISTANCE OF WIRE A IS FOUR TIMES THE
RESISTANCE OF WIRE B. HOW DO THEIR DIAMETERS COMPARE?

a. DA = 4 DB
b. DA = 2 DB
c. DA = DB
d. DA = ½ DB
e. DA = ¼ DB

l
R
A
A WIRE OF RESISTANCE R IS STRETCHED UNIFORMLY (KEEPING ITS VOLUME
CONSTANT) UNTIL IT IS TWICE ITS ORIGINAL LENGTH. WHAT HAPPENS TO THE
RESISTANCE?
a. IT INCREASES BY A FACTOR 4
b. IT INCREASES BY A FACTOR 2
c. IT STAYS THE SAME
d. IT DECREASES BY A FACTOR 2
e. IT DECREASES BY A FACTOR 4
Find the resistance of a piece of copper with a diameter
of 1 mm and a length of 1 cm

-8 -2
l (3 x 10 )(1 x 10 ) 12
R = = x 10 -4

A (  (.5 x 10 )
-3 2

Bolbo the gold broker from Baghdad has just received a gold
bullion bar for his birthday from his brother Bob.  The face of the
bar is 5 cm on both sides, and the length is 20 cm.  The resistance
between faces A and B is measured to be 0.8 micro-ohms.  Bolbo
the broker assumes that the bullion is gold if the measured
resistance is within +/- 10% of the theoretical value. Is the
material gold or is it bogus?

R  L / A B

5 cm
 (2.4 x108   m)(.2m) / .052 m 2 ) 20 c
m A
 1.92 x106 

=1.92 u don’t try to cash it in!

Summary
 CONDUCTIVITY
• A MEASURE OF HOW WELL A SOLUTION CONDUCTS
ELECTRICITY
• WATER WITH ABSOLUTELY NO IMPURITIES (DOES NOT EXIST)
• CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY VERY POORLY
• IMPURITIES IN WATER INCREASE CONDUCTIVITY
• SO, WHEN MEASURE CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER CAN ESTIMATE THE
DEGREE OF IMPURITIES