Ch. 8. Data Analysis and Results

Chapter 8:
Data Analysis and Results: Examining

What was Found in a Quantitative Study
Understanding Research:
A Consumer’s Guide
Edition 2
Vicki Plano Clark and John Creswell
© (2015, 2010) by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

How do you identify the quantitative data
analysis and results?
• Look to the Method section for a general description of
the data analysis process
• Examine the Results section to find the results for the
study’s research questions and hypotheses
Plano Clark & Creswell. Understanding Research: A Consumer's Guide, Second Edition. Chapter 8 - slide 2
© 2015, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
What are the steps to understand a
study’s quantitative data analysis?
Look for how the researchers:
• Scored the data (assigned a value for each response)
• Prepared the data for analysis
• Analyzed the data to answer descriptive research
questions
• Analyzed the data to test comparison and relationship
hypotheses
• Reported the results
How do researchers prepare the
quantitative data for analysis?
• Select a computer program to use for analysis
• Enter the collected data into the database
• Examine the dataset for missing data (participants did
not answer certain items)
• Check data for accuracy
• Prepare the types of scores needed for the analysis
– Single-item scores
– Summed (scaled) scores
How do researchers use descriptive
statistics to answer descriptive research
questions?

• Central tendency (overall tendency in the data)
• Variability (how varied scores are)
• Relative standing (where one score stands relative to
the rest of the scores)
How do descriptive statistics describe
central tendency?
• Two common statistics are the mean and the mode
• Mean is the average score for the variable across all
the participants
• Mode is the score that is the common response for a
variable
How do descriptive statistics describe
variability?
• Two common statistics are the range and the standard
deviation
• Range of scores is the difference between the highest
and the lowest scores obtained for a variable
• Standard deviation is a measure of how dispersed the
data are about the mean value for a continuous
variable
How do descriptive statistics to describe
relative standing?
• Two common statistics are percentile ranks and z
scores
• Percentile rank is a number describing the percentage
of participants in the distribution who have scores at or
below a particular score
• Standard z score is a measure of relative standing that
is calculated by converting a participant’s score into a
relative score measured in units of standard deviations
How do researchers use inferential
statistics to answer comparison and
relationship research questions?
1. Identify a null and alternative hypothesis
2. Set the criterion for making a decision, called the
alpha value or level of significance
3. Collect data from a sample
4. Compute a statistic for the sample’s data
5. Make a decision about rejecting or failing to reject
the null hypothesis
What statistical tests are used for
comparing groups?
Statistic name Use
T-test Test difference between 2 groups, 1
dependent variable
Analysis of Variance Test difference among 2 or more groups, 1
(ANOVA) dependent variable
Analysis of Covariance Test difference among 2 or more groups, 1
(ANCOVA) dependent variable, controlling for at least 1
control variable
Multiple Analysis of Test difference among 2 or more groups, 2 or
Variance (MANOVA) more dependent variables
Chi Square Test difference among groups in terms of a
categorical dependent variable
Effect Size Assess effect size for a significant t-test
Eta Squared Asses effect size for a significant ANOVA test
What statistical tests are used for
comparing groups?
Statistic name Use
Mann Whitney Test difference among 2 groups, 1
dependent variable that is non-normal
Kruskal–Wallis one-way Test difference among 2 or more groups, 1
Analysis of Variance dependent variable that is non-normal
Odds Ratio Describe likelihood (or odds) that a trait
occurs when an independent/predictor
variable is present relative to the odds that
the trait occurs when the
independent/predictor variable is absent
What statistical tests are used for relating
variables?
Statistic
name Use
Pearson Test relationship between two variables
Correlation
Multiple Determine degree to which 2 or more independent
Regression variables are related to (or predict) 1 dependent
variable
Beta Provide standardized measure of each independent
variable’s individual contribution to the dependent
variable in a multiple regression analysis
Factor Determine how items on an instrument relate to each
Analysis other to form different subscales through correlational
techniques
What statistical tests are used for relating
variables?
Statistic
name Use
Structural Test whether a set of variables are related to each
equation other in a specific way suggested by a theoretical
modeling model through correlational techniques
Hierarchical Analyze data that represents multiple levels (such as
linear and students, their teachers, and their schools) for
multilevel relationships (or differences)
modeling
Coefficient of Assess the proportion of variability in one variable
determination accounted for by a second variable
R squared Assess the proportion of variability in the dependent
variable accounted for by the combination of
independent variables in the regression equation
How do you make a decision to reject the
null hypothesis?
(and therefore accept the alternate hypothesis)
• If the analysis finds that the two groups are sufficiently

different (or the relationship among variables is
sufficiently large) then the researcher is able to
conclude that it is very unlikely that the null hypothesis
is true
• In other words, the data support the conclusion that
there is a difference (or a relationship)
How do you make a decision to fail to
reject the null hypothesis?
(and therefore reject the alternate hypothesis)

• If the analysis finds that the two groups are not very
different (or the relationship among variables is not
very large), then the researcher is able to conclude
that there is not sufficient evidence to reject the null
hypothesis
• In other words, the data support the conclusion that
there is no difference (or no relationship)
What is the effect size?
• Effect sizes provide an objective measure researchers

use to judge whether a statistically significant
difference or relationship is practically significant
• Based on the researchers’ knowledge of practical
issues, such as the instruments, the participants, and
the data collection efforts
• Size of the effect is typically reported as small,
medium, or large
• You, as the reader, can determine to what extent the
statistically significant result has practical significance
Where do you find results about the
participants’ characteristics?
• May be found in the Method or Results sections of a
report
• Typically describe the relevant demographic
characteristics of the study’s sample
– Age
– Ethnicity
– Educational background
– Family status
– Health status
Where do you find results about the
instruments’ performance?
• May be found in the Method or Results sections of a
report
• Typically describe the performance of the instruments
with the study’s participant
– Internal consistency of the instrument’s items
– Identification of subscales found among the instrument’s
items
Where do you find results in response to
the study’s research questions and
hypotheses?
• May be found in the Results sections of a report
• Typically address the study’s main descriptive,
comparison, and relationship research questions and
hypotheses one by one
How do you understand the results in a
quantitative study?
• Examine tables that summarize statistical
information
• Examine figures that portray variables and their
relationships
• Read the detailed explanations written about the
statistical results
How do you examine tables to learn a
summary of major results?
• A table is a summary of quantitative information
organized into rows and columns
• Read the title to learn the type of information
presented in the table
• Look at the labels for each column and each row to
identify specific variables and computed statistics
• Identify the primary statistics that are included
• Tables may include
– Participant demographic tables
– Group comparison tables
– Variable correlation tables
How do you examine figures to learn how
variables are related?
• A figure is a summary of quantitative information
presented as a chart, graph, or picture that visually
shows the relations among scores or variables in a study
• Read the caption, typically found at the bottom, that
describes the contents of the figure
• Read the labels to learn which specific variables are
displayed in the figure
• Look at the legends and notes for additional information
about what is displayed in the figure
How do you read the detailed
explanations of the results in the text?
• Identify what statistic was calculated and (perhaps) the
researchers’ reasons for selecting that statistic
– The statistic’s symbol
– Important parameters (# of variables, degrees of freedom)
– The value of the statistic as calculated from the sample’s
data
– The p value associated with the calculated statistic value
– The  level used to evaluate the p value
• Note whether the hypothesis test produced a
significant or non-significant result
• If the result was significant, look for a report of its
practical significance in terms of an effect size
How do researchers report results that match
their study’s research design?
Design type Results usually emphasize Results are
presented in
True experiment Inferential statistics that Tables and
or compare groups in terms of occasionally
quasi-experiment the dependent variables graphs
Single-subject Descriptive statistics that Graphical displays
experiment describe the data over time in figures
Correlational Inferential statistics that test Tables
design for relationships among
variables
Survey design Descriptive statistics that Tables
describe trends and
variability for single variables
and relationship and
comparison analyses
How do you evaluate data analysis and
results in a quantitative study?
Indicators of Indicators of
Quality criteria
higher quality lower quality
The data were + Data were scored in - Scoring procedures
rigorously consistent manner were inconsistent
scored and + Data preparation was - Unclear whether
prepared explained statistical software
+ Statistical software program was a good
program was a good choice
choice for analysis
Good + Calculated appropriate - Calculated descriptive
descriptive descriptive statistics for statistics for only some
analyses were all major variables of the variables
conducted
Quality criteria
Good hypothesis + Applied five steps of - Did not use
testing hypothesis testing hypothesis testing
+ Statistical tests are - Statistical tests are
procedures were
justified unclear
used
The results are + Results are reported - Results are
comprehensive about demographics, incomplete
instruments,
research questions
and hypotheses
The results + The statistic, its - Sufficient information
include sufficient value, associated p was lacking
value, significance, - Nonsignificant results
information
and effect size were presented
Quality criteria
The data + Analysis was deductive - Analysis included
analysis + Statistical results are inductive element
represents a found based on the - Statistical results do not
good process gathered data strongly represent the
data
The results + Results address + Results do not address
provide a research questions and research questions and
good hypotheses hypotheses
explanation + Only statistical tests - Statistical tests were
of the study’s related to the study’s calculated and reported
purpose purpose were that are not related to
calculated and reported the study’s purpose

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Chapter 8:

Data Analysis and Results: Examining

Vicki Plano Clark and John Creswell

© (2015, 2010) by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

• If the analysis finds that the two groups are sufficiently

• Effect sizes provide an objective measure researchers

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