Mathematical Reasoning

(Proofs & Refutations)

John Mason
Oxford PGCE
February 2010

1
 Aims

 To involve us in experiencing
mathematical reasoning
 To consider implications for teaching
– Comprehending reasoning
– Re-constructing reasoning
– Reasoning for oneself

2
 Carpet Theorem
 Imagine a room with two carpets (rugs) NOT
overlapping.
 One of the carpets is moved so as to overlap
the other.
– What can be said about the area of overlap and the
change of area of uncovered floor?
 Alter the amount of overlap …
 (in spare time: generalise to more carpets!)

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 Visual Carpet Theorem

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 Deduction & Induction

 Aristotelian Deduction
– If A, and if A implies B, then B
 Peano Induction
– If P(1) and
if for all natural numbers k, P(k) implies
P(k+1)
then for all natural numbers n, P(n)
 Contrast with Empirical (scientific)
Induction

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 Toulmin

Toulmin, S. (1969). The Uses of Argument,

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
8
 Jigsaw Proofs

Does this
generalise …
… to √n ?
… to np/q ?

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 JigSaw Proofs

Does this
generalise …
… to √n ?
… to np/q ?

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 Home (Reflections) Work

 Not interested in actual reasoning, but in

what you found yourself DOING in
seeking proofs

-4890 x2 + 2220 x + 54289 is square for x

= -3 .. 3
-420 x2 +420 x + 5329 is square for x =
-3 .. 4
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 Square Deduction
3b-3a 3(3b-3a) = 3a+b
a+3b 12a =these
Could 8b all be
3a+b squares?
So 3a=2b
a b For an overall square
2a+ a+b a+2b 4a + 4b = 2a + 5b
b So 2a = b
3

1 For n squares upper

9 1 left
n(3b - 3a) = 3a + b
2 3
7
8 So 3a(n + 1) = b(3n -
5 1)
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 Abundant, Perfect & Deficient

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 Attention
 Holding Wholes (gazing)
 Discerning Details
 Recognising Relationships
 Perceiving Properties
 Reasoning on the basis of agreed
properties

Burger W. & Shaunessy J. (1986). Characterizing the

van Hiele levels of development in geometry. Journal
for Research in Mathematics Education. 17 (1) 31-48
van Hiele, P. (1986). Structure and Insight: a theory of
mathematics education. Developmental Psychology
Series. London: Academic Press
(2003) On The Structure of Attention in the Learning of
14Mathematics, Australian Mathematics Teacher, 59 (4)
 Magic Square Reasoning

What other
configurations
like this
give one sum
2 6 7 2 equal to another?

1 5 9
Try to describe
2
8 3 4 them in words

Any colour-
symmetric
arrangement?
Sum( ) – Sum( =0
)
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 More Magic Square Reasoning

Sum( ) – Sum( ) =0
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 Geometrical Reasoning Outline

 Reprise on Reasoning
 Tasks through which to refresh
experience of geometrical reasoning
– Angle reasoning
– Length reasoning
– Diagonal properties  familiar properties
– Unfamiliar Problems

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 Aims

 To involve us in experiencing
mathematical reasoning
 To consider implications for teaching
– Comprehending reasoning
– Re-constructing reasoning
– Reasoning for oneself
 Warrants, Back-up, and Counter-
Examples (Toulmin)
 Movements of Attention

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 Geometric Construction 1

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 Geometric Construction 2

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 Subtended Angle Theorem 1
 Imagine a circle
– Imagine a chord of that
circle
– Imagine the angle
subtended by the chord
at the circumference
– Imagine the angle
subtended by the chord
at the centre
 How are these related?

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 Subtended Angle Theorem 2
 Imagine a circle
– Imagine a chord
– Imagine at one end of the
chord a tangent to the
circle
– Imagine also an angle
subtended by the chord
at the circumference
(away from the tangent)
 How are the angle
between the tangent
and the chord, and the
angle subtended at the
circumference, related?

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 Reflected Tangent

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 Reflected Tangent (2)

Allow the diagonal to be a

25 chord
 Reflected Tangent (3)

Allow the tangent to be at

26 some other angle to the
 Characterising
 For any quadrilateral whose diagonals
intersect at right angles, the alternating
sum of the squares of the edge lengths is
zero.
– Alternating sum: a – b + c – d in cyclic order
 For any quadrilateral whose alternating sum
of squares of the edge lengths is zero, the
diagonals intersecting at right angles
 Gluing such quadrilaterals together edge to
edge preserves the alternating sum of
squares of edge lengths as zero.
 Any planar polygon with an even number of
sides with alternating sum of squares of
edge lengths zero can be formed by gluing
together quadrilaterals with this property.
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 Other Alternating Sums

 For any convex quadrilateral with an

inscribed circle (a circle tangent to each of
the edges at an interior point of that edge)
the alternating sum of the edge lengths is
zero
– What if the quadrilateral is not convex (the points
of tangency may be on the edges extended)
 For any convex quadrilateral inscribed in a
circle the alternating sum of the interior
angles is zero.
 What about the converse of these?

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 Characterising Quadrilaterals

 The diagonals of a kite intersect at right

angles and one is bisected
 The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each
other
 The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each
other at right angles
 What additional properties do the diagonals
of a square, rectangle, parallelogram,
trapezium have?
 Converses? Do these properties characterise
these classes of quadrilaterals?

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 Attention
 Holding Wholes (gazing)
 Discerning Details
 Recognising Relationships
 Perceiving Properties
 Reasoning on the basis of agreed
properties

Burger W. & Shaunessy J. (1986). Characterizing the

van Hiele levels of development in geometry. Journal
for Research in Mathematics Education. 17 (1) 31-48
van Hiele, P. (1986). Structure and Insight: a theory of
mathematics education. Developmental Psychology
Series. London: Academic Press
(2003) On The Structure of Attention in the Learning of
30Mathematics, Australian Mathematics Teacher, 59 (4)
 Aspects of Proof Didactics

 Reconstructing (jigsaws) ≠ comprehending

 Comprehending reasoning ≠ constructing your
own
 Constructing your own is an attempt to convince:
– Yourself
– A friend
– A sceptic
– That they can see what you can see (theorem)
 Developing ‘warrants’ for assertions by calling
upon previously agreed properties

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 Further Reading
 Logic problems
– www.scribd.com/doc/193599/Challenging-Logic-and-
Reasoning-Problems
 Hanna, G. (1995) Changes to the Importance of Proof,
For the Learning of Mathematics, 15 (3), p42–50.
 Abramsky (Ed.) (2002). Reasoning, Explanation and
Proof in School Mathematics and Their Place in the
Intended Curriculum: proceedings QCA international
seminar, QCA, London. ISBN 1 85838 510 5
 … see WebLearn site
 mcs/open.ac.uk/jhm3

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