Principles of Surveying

(SUG 418)
LINEAR MEASUREMENT

ASSOC. PROF. Sr HJ MUHAMAD HJ JAAFAR

Department of Surveying Science and Geomatics
Universiti Teknologi MARA
 OUTLINE
• Introduction
• Method of Making Linear Measurement
• Measurement Over Sloping Ground.
• Sources and Correction of Errors
 INTRODUCTION
• Most elementary method in surveying
• Simplest surveying method
• Only determine distance between 2 points
on the surface of the earth.
• Low accuracy
• Limited area / flat area.
 METHOD OF MAKING LINEAR
MEASUREMENT
Direct Measurement

• TAPING • CHAINS
 METHOD OF MAKING LINEAR
MEASUREMENT (Cont..)
• Optical Measurement / Indirect Method
Upper Stadia
Middle Stadia
Lower Stadia

Vertical Angle (θ)

Horizontal Distance (HD)

HD = 100 s COS2 θ

Note: s is different stadia (Upper stadia – Lower Stadia)

MEASUREMENT OVER SLOPING
GROUND
• DIRECT METHOD / STEP METHOD

D
HD = A+B+C+D

DISTANCE
MEASUREMENT OVER SLOPING
GROUND (CONT..)
• INDIRECT METHOD

D)
ance (S
eD ist
S lop
Vertical Angle (θ)

Horizontal Distance (HD)

HD = SD COS θ
 ERROS

• Gross – Mistake / Blunder

• Systematic – Cumulative
• Random – Accidental / Compensating
 GROSS ERROS
• Gross – Mistake / Blunder
• Carelessness, incompetence
• Can be eliminated by carefull checking
• E.g – reading number 6 instead of 9
• Can lead to serious problems
 SOURCES OF ERROS
• Personal errors – no surveyor has
perfect senses and touch
• Instrumental errors – no perfect
instruments; wear and tear
• Natural errors – temperature, wind,
moisture, magnetic variations ….
 SYSTEMATIC ERROS
• Systematic or cumulative error is one
which, for constant conditions, remains
the same as to sign and magnitude
• Accounted by mathematical equations
• E.g. – if a steel tape is 0.10 mm too
short, each time the tape is used the
same error is made
 RANDOM ERROS
• Random, accidental or compensating
error is one whose magnitude and
direction is just an accident and beyond
the control of the surveyor
• Remaining after the removal of gross
and systematic erros
 SOURCES AND CORRECTION OF ERRORS
Source Correction Important in Procedure to
measurement eliminate
Not Standard Usually small but Standardize and apply
- must be checked computed correction
length

Temperature Of consequence Measure temperature

Cr =αL (T-To) only in hot and and apply computed
cold weather correction

Change in Pull/ Cp= (P – Po) L Negligible Apply computed

correction; in precise
tension aE work use a spring
balance
Sag Cs = W2L Large if use Apply computed
heavy tape correction; in precise
24P2
work use a spring
balance
Slope H = s Cos θ - At breaks in slope
determine slope angle;
apply computed
correction
 ACCURACY
• Degree of perfection obtained in
measurements.
• Denotes how close a given measurement
is to the true value of the quantity
 PRECISION
• Apparent accuracy refers to the degree of
refinement with which a given quantity is
measured.
• The closeness of one measurement to
another.