INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS,

ANALYSIS AND SELECTION

 Treatment methods in which the application of physical
forces predominate are known as physical unit operations.
Examples of physical unit operations include screening,
mixing, sedimentation, gas transfer, filtration and absorption.
Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of
constituents is brought about by the addition of chemical or by
other chemical reactions are known as chemical unit
processes.
Examples of chemical unit processes include disinfection,
oxidation and precipitation. Treatment methods in which the
removal of constituents is brought about by biological activity
are known as biological unit processes.
REACTORS USED FOR THE TREATMENT
Wastewater treatment involving physical,
chemical or biological activities are carried out
in vessels or tanks commonly known as
“reactors”.
• Types of reactors:

• Batch reactor: The flow enters, is treated and

then is discharged and the cycle repeats. Once
the processing commences flow does not enter
or leave the vessel. Used for small operations.
REACTORS USED FOR THE TREATMENT

• Types of reactors:

• Complete mix reactor: Complete mixing occurs

instantaneously and uniformly throughout the reactor as
fluid enters the reactor. Usually squar tanks, L~W. Used
with most newer systems.
REACTORS USED FOR THE TREATMENT

• Types of reactors:

• Plug-flow reactor: Fluid passes through the reactor with

little or no longitudinal mixing and exit the reactor in the
same sequence as they entered. Long rectangular tanks
L>>W. Used in most older systems.
REACTORS USED FOR THE TREATMENT

• Types of reactors:

• Complete-mix reactors in series (e)

• Packed-Bed reactors (f), (g)

• Fluidized-Bed reactors (h)
REACTORS USED FOR THE TREATMENT
• Applications of the reactors:

• The principle applications of reactors types

used for the treatment of wastewater are
reported in Table 4-1
• Operational factors that are considered in the
selection of the type of reactor to be used:
• The nature of the wastewater to be treated

• The nature of the reaction

• The reaction kinetics

• The process performance requirements

Table 4-1

8
 MASS-BALANCE ANALYSIS (MASS
TRANSFER)

The fundamental approach used to study the hydraulic flow

characteristics of reactors and to delineate the changes that take
place when a reaction is occurring in a reactor (e.g., a container),
or in some definable portion of a body of liquid, is the mass-
balance analysis.
The mass-balance analysis is based on the principle that
mass is neither created nor destroyed, but the form of the mass
can be altered (e.g. liquid to a gas). The mass-balance analysis
affords a convenient way of defining what occurs within reactors
as a function of time.
MASS-BALANCE ANALYSIS
• Principle: conservation of
mass; mass neither created
nor destroyed.

Rate of Rate of flow of Rate of flow of Rate of generation

accumulation of reactant into reactant out of of reactant within
reactant within the = the system - the system + the system
system boundary boundary boundary boundary
10

(1) (2) (3) (4)

MASS-BALANCE ANALYSIS
• Preparation of Mass Balances
• Schematic
• Control volume
• List all data and assumptions
• List all rate expressions
• Select a basis for calculation

• Application of mass-balance analysis

• Assumptions:
• Constant flowrate into and out of control volume
• No evaporation (constant volume)
• Complete mixing
• Reaction occurs within reactor
• Rate of reaction is first-order (rc = -kC) 11
PROCESSES INVOLVING MASS TRANSFER

 Definition: a process involving the transfer of mass from one

homogenous phase to another.

 The process is designed to reduce the concentration of a given

component in one stream and increase it in another stream.

 The deriving force of the transfer of material is a pressure or

concentration gradient.

 Important for a number of wastewater treatment processes(activated

sludge, RBC, TF, digestion, etc.), common application transfer of O2

 Table 4-9 gives the common operations and processes in wastewater

treatment involving mass transfer.
13
PROCESSES INVOLVING MASS TRANSFER
 Gas-liquid mass transfer: 

• Several mass-transfer theories have been proposed

to explain the mechanism of gas transfer:
• The two-film theory (simple and commonly used) 
• The penetration model (more theoretical (complex))
• The surface-renewal model (more theoretical (complex))

• The Two-Film Theory:

• The theory is based on a physical model in which two films exist
at the gas-liquid interface.
• Two conditions can exist, (a) “absorption”: gas is transferred from
the gas phase to the liquid phase and (b) “desorption”: gas is
transferred from the liquid phase into the gas phase.
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS SELECTION

 Process selection involves detailed evaluation of the various factors that

must be considered when evaluating unit operations and processes to
meet the treatment objectives.
 The purpose of the process analysis is to select the most suitable unit
operations and processes and the optimal operational criteria.
 Important factors in process selection:
 Process Applicability. The ability of the process to get the job done in terms of eliminating the
pollutant. Reflects directly upon the skill and experience of the design engineer. Resources
include: data from operating installations; published information in technical journals, manuals of
practice (MOPs) from the WPCF; process manuals from EPA and lab and pilot plant studies.

 Applicable Flow Range and Variability. For example, stabilization ponds are not suitable for
extremely large flowrates, if the flow variation is too great, equalization may be required.

 Wastewater Characteristics. Affect the type of processes to be used: physical, chemical,

biological.

 Many others. Climate, sludge processing, complexity.

INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS SELECTION

 Process selection based on reaction kinetics:

Emphasis is placed on defining the nature of the reaction occurring within

the process, the appropriate values of the kinetic coefficients, and the
selection of the reactor type.

 Nature of the kinetic reactions:

• Should know reaction order (zero, first, second, etc..)

•Affect selection of type and size of reactor

 Selection of appropriate kinetic rate coefficients:

•Selection of coefficients is based on: literature, similar systems, or pilot-
plant studies.
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS SELECTION

 Selection of reactor type:

Factors that must be considered in reactor selection include:
•The nature of wastewater

•The nature of the reaction kinetics

•Special process requirements

•Local environmental conditions

 Selection based on mass transfer:

•Processes involving mass transfer include: aeration (addition of oxygen),
removal of VOCs, stripping of constituents (e.g. ammonia stripping),
exchange of dissolved constituents (ion exchange)
•Lots of literature and experience is available on theses subjects.
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS SELECTION

 Process design based on loading criteria:

• If mathematical expressions (reaction rate and/or mass transfer
coefficients) cannot be developed, loading criteria are often used.

• For example, activated sludge systems based on lb BOD/1000ft3 of

aeration tank capacity. Knowing the BOD loading, e.g. 200 mg/l in the
influent, then yields a tank volume.

• Limits of loading criteria are seldom defined.

• With the new activated-sludge biological treatment process variations

and new aeration equipment, the loading factors based design should be
avoided.
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS SELECTION

 Bench tests and pilot –plant studies:

• Bench or pilot-scale tests are conducted where the applicability of a
process for a given situation is unknown.
• The purpose is to establish the suitability of the process in the treatment
of a specific wastewater under specific conditions in order to obtain the
necessary data for full-scale design.
• Factors that should be considered in planning pilot-plants studies are
given in Table 4-12
• Pinch-scale tests are conducted in the laboratory with small amounts of
wastewater.
• Pilot-scale tests are conducted with flows that are 5 to 10 percent of the
design flow.
20
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS SELECTION
 Reliability considerations in process selection:
• Treatment performance and reliability in meeting permit requirements is an
important factor in process selection.
• Because wastewater treatment effluent quality can be variable for a number
of reasons, it is necessary to ensure that the treatment system is designed to
produce effluent quality of equal or less than the permit limit.
• Impact of variability:
• Almost all kinetic and empirical factors are based on constant
wastewater flowrate and loading conditions.
• Pumping and Piping. The critical design factor is the maximum hourly
flowrate. Variations may lead to flooding or overflowing.
• Secondary Sedimentation. The critical design factor is minimum flowrate
and detection time. Variations may lead to rising sludge.
• Statistical analysis are used to assess reliability: the probability that a system
can meet performance criteria consistently over extended period of time.
ELEMENTS OF CONCEPTUAL PROCESS DESIGN

 Design Period :
• Elements that can be easily expanded lend themselves to a shorter
design time than difficult to expand structures.
• A longer design will avoid untimely expansions, but on the other hand,
longer design periods involve larger facilities and increased capital costs.
Almost all funding agencies, city, state, feds seek to avoid capital costs.
• An under-time designed facility may be overloaded in a short period of
time. STPs have been constructed that have been overloaded the day
they went on line. On the other hand, a grossly over-time designed
facility may not meet current needs. Typical strategies involve building
less but setting up for future expansion in terms of larger pump buildings
but not placing the pumps, construction 2 tanks but leaving room and
connection for 4 tanks.
• Hydraulics 20-40 years. Pumping equipment 10-25 years.
ELEMENTS OF CONCEPTUAL PROCESS DESIGN
• Flow Diagrams, Design Criteria, Preliminary Sizing
• Flow diagrams are graphical representations. Although limitless
permutations are possible, however, most modern day urban designs would
involve a completely mixed activated sludge plant with anaerobic digestion of
sludge and chlorination of the effluent. For reuse purposes, tertiary
treatment is usually added in the form of filtration. It is a good idea to start
simply and add elements based on the site-specific needs of the installation.

• Design Criteria. Should be evaluated for the future target date as well as the
present. An example of design criteria would be a minimum detention time of
90 minutes for a primary sedimentation tank. Design criteria in a sense is the
heart of design because this information leads to the size and arrangement of
the facilities that will eventually be constructed.

• Preliminary Sizing. Maintenance and Repair considerations are important.

Flexibility in terms of extra valves, by-pass lines, choice of operations is of
paramount importance.

• Others. Include: solids balance, layout and hydraulics.

That’s all, THANK YOU 24