VLSI Design

Chapter #02
XOR Gate

• For an exclusive-OR gate, opposite inputs makes the output HIGH.

XOR Gate
A B A B AB Output

0
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 OFF
OFF OFF
OFF ON
ON OFF
OFF 0
0
0 1 1 0 ON OFF OFF OFF 1
0 1 1 0 ON OFF OFF OFF 1
1 0 0 1 OFF ON OFF OFF 1
1 0 0 1 OFF ON OFF OFF 1
1 0 1 0 OFF OFF OFF ON 0
1 0 1 0 OFF OFF OFF ON 0

PULL- Up Network – PMOS [VDD or 1]

PULL- Down Network – PNOS [ Ground or 0]
X NOR Gate
• For an exclusive-NOR gate, opposite inputs makes the output LOW.
X NOR Gate
A B AB A B Output
0 1 0 1 ON OFF OFF OFF 1
0 1 1 0 OFF OFF ON OFF 0
1 0 0 1 OFF OFF OFF ON 0
1 0 1 0 OFF ON OFF OFF 1

PULL- Up Network – PMOS [VDD or 1]

PULL- Down Network – PNOS [ Ground or 0]
Tristate
• The figure shows symbols for a tristate buffer. When the enable input EN is 1, the
output Y equals the input A, just as in an ordinary buffer. When the enable is 0, Y
is left floating (a ‘Z’ value).
Tristate Inverter
• The output is actively driven from VDD or GND, so it is a restoring logic gate.
• When EN is 0 (Figure 1.27(b)), both enable transistors are OFF, leaving the output
floating. When EN is 1 (Figure 1.27(c)), both enable transistors are ON. They are
conceptually removed from the circuit, leaving a simple inverter.
• Figure 1.27(d) shows symbols for the tristate inverter. A tristate buffer can be built
as an ordinary inverter followed by a tristate inverter.
Multiplexers
• Multiplexers
  are key components in CMOS memory elements and data
manipulation structures.
• A multiplexer chooses the output from among several inputs based on a select
signal.
• A 2-input, or 2:1 multiplexer, chooses input D0 when the select is 0 and input D1
when the select is 1. The truth table is given. The logic function is
Y = · D0 + S · D1.
Inverting Multiplexers
• We could build a restoring, inverting multiplexer out of gates in several ways.
• One is the compound gate connected as shown in Figure 1.29(a).
• Another is to gang together two tristate inverters, as shown in Figure 1.29(b).
• 4-input (4:1) multiplexers using each of these approaches are shown in Figure
1.30. In practice, both inverting and noninverting multiplexers are simply called
multiplexers or muxes.
Fundamentals of Integrated
Circuit Fabrication
• Semi- conductor device fabrication is the process used to create chips
for devices that are a part of our everyday use.
• It is a multiple-step sequence of photographic and chemical
processing during which electronic circuits are gradually created on a
wafer substrate made of pure semi-conducting material.
Fundamentals Of Integrated Circuits
• The fabrication of integrated circuits is an art.
• From the age of LSI (large-scale integration) to VLSI (very-large-scale
integration), the device dimension has reduced by a large amount, but at the same
time 100% of its switching speed has increased. ULSI (ultra-large-scale
integration) is used for low-dimensional nanostructure devices.
Fundamentals Of Integrated Circuits
• Nanodevices are typically 1–100 nm (in each direction) in dimension. The
smaller the devices, greater is the challenge of fabrication.
• There has been a shift from the bipolar technology to the MOS technology.
Scale Of Integration:
• Historically, the first semiconductor IC chips held diode/transistor.
Advancement of technology enabled us to add more and more
transistors.
• The first to arrive was small-scale integration (SSI), then
improvements in technique led to devices with hundred of logic gates-
large –scale integration (LSI).
• Present day microprocessors have millions of logic gates and
transistors. Intel co-founder, Gordon E. Moore, in 1965 published a
paper on the future projection of IC technology.
Types Of Integrated Circuits
• Monolithic IC:
In the Monolithic IC the entire circuit is built to a single piece of semiconductor
chip, which consists of active and passive components. The most commonly used in
integrated circuits, microprocessors, memories, etc are all monolithic.

• Hybrid IC:
In Hybrid IC the electronic circuit is generally integrated in the ceramics substrate
using various components and then enclosed in the single package. The hybrid IC
consists of several monolithic ICs connected by metallic interconnects mounted on
a common substrate.
Merits And Demrits Of Integrated Circuits:
• The advantages of integrated circuits are as follows:
1. Small in size due to the reduced device dimension
2. Low weight due to very small size
3. Low power requirement due to lower dimension and lower threshold power requirement
4. Low cost due to large-scale production
5. High reliability due to the absence of a solder joint
6. Facilitates integration of large number of devices
7. Improves the device performance even at high-frequency region
Merits And Demrits Of Integrated Circuits:
• The disadvantages of integrated circuits are as follows:
1. IC resistors have a limited range
2. Generally inductors (L) cannot be formed using IC
3. Transformers cannot be formed using IC
Integrated Circuit
• An integrated circuit is one in which circuit components such as transistors,
diodes, resistors, capacitors etc. are automatically part of a small semiconductor
chip.
• An integrated circuit consists of a number of circuit components (e.g. transistors,
diodes, resistors etc.) and their inter connections in a single small package to
perform a complete electronic function.
• These components are formed and connected within a small chip of
semiconductor material.