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PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1
2ND QUARTER
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INSTRUMENT
INTERVIEWS
OBSERVATION
RESEARCH METHOD
QUESTIONNAIRES
RESEARCH METHODS
and their
INSTRUMENTS
MR. JOHN HERSON TRINIDAD
UNLAYAO
RESEARCH METHODS and their
INSTRUMENTS

• The task of the researcher is to devise a way to

examine and analyze the variables of interest so
that the answers to the research problem
can be derived.
• The decisions on what tools and instruments
to use and how they are implemented are
very critical issues that determine the validity
and reliability of the findings.
 MOST FREQUENTLY USED
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
INTERVIEWS

• Are conversations that are designed to obtain specific

kinds of information. The skill of the interviewer is
necessary to enable the interviewee to express his
or her thoughts clearly.
LIFE HISTORIES are also needed in this area. These are
narrative self-disclosures about the individual’s life
experiences. The interviewer must guide the respondents to
narrate the accounts in sequence
INTERVIEWS

DATA OBTAINED FROM AN INTERVIEW MAY BE

RECORDED USING THE FOLLOWING:
• Audiotapes
• Videotapes
 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1.Unstructured.
The researcher must be skilled in steering the course of the interview.
The interviewer must be knowledgeable on the subject or topic of
concern.
This can be in the form of normal conversations or a freewheeling
exchange of ideas.
2. Structured.
The conduct of questioning follows a particular progression and has a
well-defined content.
The interviewer does not ask questions that are not part of the
questionnaire but he or she asks interviewer to clarify his or her answers.
 TYPES OF INTERVIEW

3. Semi-structured.
There is a specific set of questions, but there are also
additional probes that may come in the form of follow-up
questions that are not included in the list of original
questions.
Through this process, the researcher can gather additional
data from a respondents that may add depth and
significance to the findings.
GROUP INTERVIEWS

• Are interviews conducted with several respondents

simultaneously- ideally six to ten people. This method may
be used when a certain effect is desired., or if a topic calls for it.
Example:
if the study seeks to examine a communal experience like commuting to
school or work, rather than a personal experience , then engaging respondents
via group interview may yield better results. Researchers conducting group
interviews often use instruments called topic guides, which resemble interview
schedules, but are less restrictive in structure to allow the respondents a more
free and dynamic exchange of ideas
 Group interview can be
classified into two types:
1.Focus Groups – Participants in a focus group are
selected by the researcher according to specific sampling
criteria.
Example: licensed dermatologists who have been practicing for at least ten
years; current college students majoring in English with honors.
2. Natural Groups – The participants belong to a
group that exist independently of the study.
Example: all members of the marketing department of a certain company;
members of a local sports team
 OBSERVATION
This method enables the researcher to conduct
research in an immersive manner, collecting data on
natural phenomenon or behavior as it occurs. The
instrument often used in conjunction with this method is called
an observation checklist or observation guide.
Observation checklist are quantitative in nature, and
make use of ratings or numerical rankings.
Observation guide are more qualitative, and allow for
more general, descriptive documentation.
 OBSERVATION
It must be done in a quiet, inconspicuous, and unobtrusive manner to
get realistic data.

It can be used to gather information such as :

characteristics
conditions of individuals
verbal communication
non-verbal communication
activities
environmental conditions.
 OBSERVATION

THE FOLLOWING DIMENSIONS SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO

CONSIDERATIONS:
• The focus of observation: concealment, the condition wherein
the subject of observation has no knowledge of that he or she
is being observed
• Duration
• The method of recording the observation
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION

1.STRUCTURED
The researcher devices a checklist as a data collection tool wherein
expected behaviors of interest have been specified.
The researcher just records the frequency of the occurrences of the
behavior.
2. UNSTRUCTURED
This is performed by the researcher as he or she tries to explain events
without any preconceived ideas about what will be observed.
The researcher observes things as they happen.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
The observer, who is the researcher, takes part in the activities
of the individual or group being observed. Your actual involvement
enables you to obtain firsthand knowledge about the subjects’
behavior an the way they interact with one another.
NON-PARTICIPANT OR STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
This type of observation completely detaches you from the
target of your observation. You watch and listen them to do their
own thing without you participating in any of their activities.
ADVANTAGES OF
OBSERVATION
1. It is the most direct measure of behavior.
2. It provides direct information.
3. It is easy to complete and is efficient.
4. It can be used in natural or experimental
settings.
DISADVANTAGES OF
OBSERVATION
1. It may require training.
2. It is susceptible to bias.
3. Observer’s presence may create an artificial
situation.
4. It can potentially overlook meaningful aspects.
5. It is open to misinterpretation.
6. It is difficult to analyze.
SURVEYS

Also known as QUESTIONNAIRES

Are perhaps the most commonly used instrument in
research- particularly in quantitative research.
It is a list of planned, written questions about a
particular topic, with spaces provided for the
response to each question, intended to be answered by
a number of persons. This means that questionnaires are
both method and an instrument.
ADVANTAGES OF
QUESTIONNAIRES
1. It is relatively inexpensive
2. Easy to administer
3. Potentially more consistent than the other
methods
4. Assures confidentiality
5. Minimizes biases on question-phrasing modes
DISADVANTAGES OF
OBSERVATION
1. Respondents may interpret the questions
differently and may answer them in ways the
researcher did not intend.
2. There is also strong possibility that some
respondents will choose not to fill out or return
their questionnaires.
 TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

1.STRUCTURED. If possible answers are provided

and respondents just have to select from them.
(Quantitative Research)
2.UNSTRUCTURED. If the questions are open-
ended – no options are provided and the
respondents are free to answer however they wish.
(Qualitative Research)
TYPES OF QUESTIONS

1.Yes or No. Items are answerable by yes or no.

Example: Do call center agents have
the right to refuse calls? ( ) Yes ( ) No
2.Recognition. Fixed alternative answers are already provided, the
respondents simply choose from among the given choices. It contains close-
ended questions.
Example: Educational qualification
_____ Elementary school graduate _____ College graduate
_____ High school graduate _____ Elementary school graduate
_____ Vocational school graduate _____ Others (pls. specify) _______
 TYPES OF QUESTIONS

3. Completion. The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the
necessary information. Questions are open-ended.
Example: As a teacher, after seeing a misbehavior done by a pupil, I will
_______________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
4. Coding type. Numbers are assigned to names, choices, and other
pertinent data. This entails knowledge of statistics on the part of the researcher,
as statistical formula application is necessary to arrive at the findings.
Example: On the scale of one to ten, how will you rate your students’s
communication skills?
TYPES OF QUESTIONS

5. Subjective. The respondents are free to

give their opinions about an issue of concern.
Example: What can you say about teachers who are
deeply committed to their work?

Researchers may choose to construct

questionnaires consisting of a single type of
questions, or divide the questionnaires into two or
more short sections, each using a different type of
WORDINGS OF QUESTIONS
Niewiadomy (2014) provides the following guidelines in formulating questions:

1. Questions should be stated in an affirmative rather than in a

negative manner.
2. Ambiguous questions, such as those which contain words like
many, always, usually, and few should be avoided.
3. Double negative questions, e.g., “Don’t you disagree with the
idea that…..?” should also be avoided.
4. Double-barreled questions, like when asking two questions in
one, should not be practiced. For example, “Do you want to become
the class president and seek a position in the student council?”
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
DATA-COLLECTION INSTRUMENT:
1. It must be concise yet able to elicit the needed data. According to
Shelly (1984), the length of a questionnaire must be two or four pages and
maximum time of answering is ten minutes. Shelley added that a desirable
length of each question is less than 20 words.
2. It seeks information which cannot be observed from other sources
like documents available at hand.
3. Questions must be arranged in sequence, from the simplest to the
most complex.
4. It should pass validity and reliability tests.
5. It must be easily tabulated and interpreted.
 SCALES COMMONLY USED IN AN
INSTRUMENT

1.LIKERT SCALE. It is a common scaling technique which consists

of several declarative statements that express a viewpoint on a topic. The
respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with the
statements. The answer usually come in the form of acronyms, e.g., SA for
Strongly Agree, A for Agree, D for Disagree, and SD for Srongly Disagree.
Example: A Likert scale that measures attitudes towards the ban of cell phones in school
ITEMS
a. There would be difficulty in contacting my parents. SA A D SD
b. I will be able to concentrate my time in listening SA A D SD
to my teachers.
c. It would stop cell phone thefts in school. SA A D SD
 SCALES COMMONLY USED IN AN
INSTRUMENT

2.SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE. The

respondents are asked to rate concepts on a series of bipolar adjectives. The
advantages in using this are that is flexible and easy to construct.
Example: Description of the school Librarian
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
Punctual 5 4 3 2 1 Not punctual
Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
VALIDITY AND
RELIABILITY
VALIDITY
VALIDITY
• It refers to the quality of the instrument of being functional only
within its specific purpose.
• An instrument is valid if it measures what it is supposed to
measure.
• The instrument of the study are used by the researcher in the
methodology to obtain the data, the validity of each one should be
established beforehand. This is to ensure the credibility of the
findings, and the correctness and accuracy of the following data
analysis.
For instance, when a study investigates the common
causes of absences, the content of the instrument
must focus on these variables and indicators.
Similarly, when a researcher formulates a problem about
the behavior of the students during school assembles, the
instrument must consists of the indicators or measures of
the behavior of students during such times.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
1.Face validity. Also known as logical validity, it
involves an analysis of whether the instrument is using a valid
scale. The procedure calls only for intuitive judgment.
Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it
has face validity.
It includes the font size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and
other necessary details that will not distract respondents from
answering the questionnaire.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
2. Content validity. This kind of validity is
determined by studying the questions to see whether they are able
to elicit the necessary information.
An instrument with high content validity has to meet the
objectives of the research.
This type of validity is not measured by a numerical index, but
instead relies on logical judgment as to whether the test measures
its intended subject.
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument to
an analysis by a group experts who have theoretical and
practical knowledge of the subject. Three to five experts
would suffice. The expert assess the items of the
questionnaire and determine if the items measure the
variables being studied. Then, the experts’criticism will be
considered in the revision of the instrument.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
3. Construct validity. This kind of validity refers to
whether the test corresponds with its theoretical construct. It is
concerned with the extent to which a particular measure relates to
other measures and to which it is consistent with the theoretically-
derived hypothesis.
Factor analysis - a relevant technique to construct validity, is a
defined statistical procedure that is used to analyze the
interrelationships of behavior data.
TYPES OF VALIDITY
4. Criterion-related validity or
equivalent test. This kind of validity is an expression
of how scores from the test are correlated with the external
criterion.
 TYPES OF CRITERION-RELATED
VALIDITY

A.Concurrent validity. It deals with measures that can be

administered and validated at the same time. It is determined by administering both
new test and the established test to a group of respondents, the finding the
correlation between the two sets of the scores. Validity is established with an
accepted and availed second test that measures what the researcher is trying to
measure.
Example:
The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test is used to determine the
IQ of nursing students. A researcher oublished a design for a short screening test that
measures the same. The scores on the Standard-Binet V and the short screening test
are compared to assess the relationship between scores.
 TYPES OF CRITERION-RELATED
VALIDITY

B. Predictive validity. It refers to how well the test predicts the

future behavior of the examinees. This is particularly useful in aptitude tests, which are
tests to predicts how well test-takers will perform in some future setting.
RELIABILITY
RELIABILITY
• It refers to the consistency of the results of an instrument in
repeated trials. A reliable instrument can also be used to verify the
credibility of the subject if the latter yield the same results in
several tests.
• However, this is only true if the instrument used is valid. It is
important to note that, while a valid instrument is always reliable, a
reliable instrument is not always necessarily valid. This is most
especially true when the subjects are human, who are governed by
judgment and prone to error. Nevertheless, testing the reliability of
an instrument is very crucial in research studies that deal with a lot
of samples.
Methods in
establishing
Reliability
Methods in establishing Reliability

1. Test-retest or stability.
In this method, the same test is given to a group of respondents twice.
The scores in the first test are correlated with the scores in the second
test.
When there is a high correlation index, it means that there is also a
high reliability of the test.
Some of the problems here are the observations that some subjects
may be able to recall certain items given during the first
administration of the test, and that the scores may differ because the
students have adapted to the test.
Carmins and Zeller (1979), in their book Reliability and Validity Assessment,
list the weaknesses identified in using the test-retest method:

• Even if the test-retest correlation can be computed and established, its

interpretation is not necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest
correlation may not indicate that the reliability of the test is low but rather
signify instead that the underlying theoretical framework has changed. The
longer the time between measurements, the more likely that the concept
has changed.
• Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not done
logically and that phenomenon can induce change in itself.
• Overestimation due to memory is another weakness in using the test-retest
method. The person’s mental recollection of his or her responses which he
or she gives during
Methods in establishing
Reliability
2. Internal consistency. If the test in
question is designed to measure a single basic concept, it is
reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item
right is likely to be right in another similar item. In other
words, items should to be correlated with each other and
the test ought to be internally consistent.
OTHER CRITERIA FOR
ASSESSING VALIDITY
AND RELIABILITY
 OTHER CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING VALIDITY
AND RELIABILITY

There are also other forms of criteria that can used in assessing the
literature (Polit & Beck, 2004)
1.Sensitivity. The instrument should be able to identify a case correctly, e.g., to
screen or diagnose a condition correctly.
2.Specificity. The instrument should be able to identify a non-case correctly,
e.g., to screen out those without the conditions correctly.
3.Comprehensibility. Subjects and researchers should be able to
comprehend the behavior required for accurate and valid measurements.
4.Precision. The instrument should discriminate among people who exhibit
varying degrees of an attribute as precisely as possible.
 OTHER CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING VALIDITY
AND RELIABILITY

There are also other forms of criteria that can used in assessing the literature
(Polit & Beck, 2004)
5. Speed. The researcher should not rush the measuring process so that he or she can
obtain reliable measurements.
6. Range. The instrument should be capable of detecting the smallest expected value
of the variable to the largest, in order to obtain meaningful measurements.
7. Linearity. The researcher normally strives to construct measures that are equally
accurate and sensitive over the entire range of values.
8. Reactivity. The instrument should, as much as possible, avoid affecting the
attribute being measured.